Métis youth: Experiences and outcomes in secondary and postsecondary learning

Métis are a distinct Indigenous people with unique communities, history and customs.^{Note 1} In Métis culture, lifelong learning is a key element in the health and well-being of individuals and their communities. For Métis, knowledge may stem from a variety of sources, including parents, knowledge holders, Elders, the community and formal education systems, such as early childhood education programs, and secondary and postsecondary education. For many Métis, land encompassing the “earth, sky, waters, and all living beings found there” acts as a teacher.^{Note 2} These are important considerations when measuring educational success for Métis.^{Note 3}

As with First Nations people and Inuit, the educational experience of Métis youth is shaped by the legacy of colonialism; Métis experiences with residential schools, day schools and the public system;^{Note 4} and the absence of this history and Métis learning practices in existing education curricula.^{Note 5} Métis are also affected by additional factors that may shape whether any individual pursues formal education, including access to essential services such as education, living in a low-income household (after-tax) and the familial responsibilities of young parents.^{Note 6}

New information available through the 2021 Census of Population allows for detailed analysis of the learning outcomes of Métis youth. This study presents 2021 Census data on the educational participation of self-identified Métis^{Note 7} youth aged 19 to 30, in conjunction with characteristics that may affect whether they complete high school and participate in postsecondary education. Of note, this study is limited to measures from the 2021 Census of Population, which do not reflect comprehensive explanatory factors or the success measures for Métis.

This study is guided by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s 55th Call to Action, which recognizes the importance of equitable education for the success of Indigenous peoples and calls for regular reporting on the educational attainment of Indigenous peoples in Canada compared with non-Indigenous people.^{Note 8}

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Textbox 1 2021 Census of Population: Membership in a Métis organization or Settlement

The 2021 Census of Population asked respondents who self-identified as Métis: “Is this person a registered member of a Métis organization or Settlement?”^{Note 9}

Respondents identified themselves in the following four broad categories (see Table A.1): ^{Note 9}

1. Métis members of organizations that are a signatory to the Canada‑Métis Nation Accord of 2017 (Métis Nation of Ontario, Manitoba Metis Federation, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan, Métis Nation of Alberta and Métis Nation British Columbia)
2. Metis members of one of the eight Metis Settlements in Alberta whose settlement corporations were established by the Alberta Metis Settlements Act in 1990 (Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement, East Prairie Metis Settlement, Elizabeth Metis Settlement, Fishing Lake Metis Settlement, Gift Lake Metis Settlement, Kikino Metis Settlement, Paddle Prairie Metis Settlement and Peavine Metis Settlement)^{Note 9}
3. Métis members of non-signatory Métis organizations who specified a local, regional, provincial, territorial or national Métis organization, or a designated Metis Settlement
4. Self-identifying Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement.

While those registered with one of the five signatories under the Canada-Métis Nation Accord or another Métis organization often regard themselves as citizens under a Métis government, the term “member of an organization” is used throughout this article to align with the language presented in the census.

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One-quarter (28%) of self-identified single-identity Métis youth aged 19 to 30 years were members of a signatory organization to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord

In 2021, over 31,000 Métis aged 19 to 30 identified as members of Métis organizations that are signatories to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord of 2017, which seeks to advance and exercise their right to self-determination, including self-government within Canada.

Data table for Chart 1

Data table for chart 1
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for chart 1 Total, calculated using count units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Total
	count
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Member of Métis Nation of Ontario	5,300
Member of Manitoba Metis Federation	8,145
Member of Métis Nation – Saskatchewan	4,465
Member of Métis Nation of Alberta	8,720
Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta	580
Member of Métis Nation British Columbia	4,670

The purpose of the accord is to “advance reconciliation of the rights, claims, interests and aspirations of the Métis Nation.”^{Note 10} For example, the Canada-Métis Nation Post-Secondary Education Sub-Accord was signed in 2019, leading to the development of the Métis Nation Post-Secondary Education Strategy. The strategy is designed to close the postsecondary educational attainment gap between Métis Nation students and non-Indigenous students in Canada through distinctions-based and regionally delivered strategic support.^{Note 11}

The Metis Settlements of Alberta are the only collectively held Métis land base in Alberta

In 2021, over 500 Métis aged 19 to 30 reported being registered members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta. While each Settlement is self-governed, education and health care fall under provincial jurisdiction.^{Note 12} The Metis Settlements General Council has identified gaps in programming that exist between the Metis Settlements of Alberta and neighbouring communities and continues to advocate for improved access to essential services within its communities.^{Note 13}

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Textbox 2  Metis Settlements of Alberta

The Alberta-Metis Settlements Accord was signed in 1989, establishing a new land-based governance model for the Metis Settlements of Alberta (Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement, East Prairie Metis Settlement, Elizabeth Metis Settlement, Fishing Lake Metis Settlement, Gift Lake Metis Settlement, Kikino Metis Settlement, Paddle Prairie Metis Settlement and Peavine Metis Settlement).^{Note 14} Governed through the Metis Settlements General Council, the Metis Settlements of Alberta are composed of eight communities spanning 1.25 million acres in rural and northern areas.^{Note 15}

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Roughly 70,000 people aged 19 to 30 years who self-identify as Métis did not report membership in an organization or Settlement

In 2021, two-thirds (65%) of all self-identified Métis respondents aged 19 to 30 did not report membership in an organization or Settlement. In the Atlantic provinces (71%) and Quebec (85%), individuals in this category accounted for a large share of self-identified Métis respondents aged 19 to 30.

Further, Métis youth who are not registered to a Métis organization or Settlement represent over half of all self-identified Métis aged 19 to 30 in the historic Métis Nation Homeland,^{Note 16} which encompasses Alberta (59%); Saskatchewan (60%); Manitoba (56%); and contiguous parts of British Columbia (67%), Ontario (72%) and the Northwest Territories (49%).^{Note 17} It is important to note that Métis youth who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement may still be eligible but may have not completed registration for various reasons.^{Note 18}

Nearly 6,000 Métis identified as members of a Métis organization that was neither a signatory to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord nor a Metis Settlement of Alberta

In addition, nearly 6,000 individuals aged 19 to 30 reported membership in a Métis organization that was neither a signatory to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord nor a Metis Settlement of Alberta. While respondents could specify a local, regional, provincial, territorial or national Métis organization or a designated Metis Settlement, some did not specify to which organization or Settlement they belonged.

Approximately 9 in 10 members of organizations that are signatories to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord had a high school diploma (or equivalent) in 2021

In 2021, nearly 9 in 10 Métis youth aged 19 to 30 (88%) had obtained a high school diploma (or equivalent), slightly less than that of non-Indigenous youth (93%). Further, over 9 of 10 Métis youth who reported membership in an organization that is a signatory to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord (94%) and Métis youth who reported membership in a non-signatory Métis organization (95%) had completed high school. Self-identifying Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement (84%) and members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta (67%) had lower levels of high school completion.

Data table for Chart 2

Data table for chart 2
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for chart 2 Attending or completed postsecondary education, High school diploma (or equivalent), Percent, 95% Confidence limits, Percent and 95% Confidence limits, calculated using from, to, from and to units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Attending or completed postsecondary education			High school diploma (or equivalent)
	Percent	95% Confidence limits		Percent	95% Confidence limits
		from	to		from	to
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Total	54	54	55	88	87	88
Not a member of a Métis organization or Settlement	48	47	49	84	84	85
Member of a signatory to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord	65	64	66	94	93	94
Member of Métis Nation of Ontario	73	70	75	95	94	96
Member of Manitoba Metis Federation	64	62	66	95	94	96
Member of Métis Nation – Saskatchewan	61	58	64	92	90	93
Member of Métis Nation of Alberta	64	62	66	93	91	94
Member of Métis Nation British Columbia	65	62	68	94	93	95
Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta	31	25	37	67	61	72
Member of a Métis organization not included elsewhere	75	73	77	95	94	96
Non-Indigenous identity	73	73	74	93	93	93

Further, three-quarters (75%) of Métis youth who reported membership in a non-signatory organization and non-Indigenous youth (73%) were participating in postsecondary education in 2021, compared with two-thirds (65%) of young Métis who reported membership in a signatory Métis organization, half (48%) of self-identified Métis youth who did not report membership in a Métis organization or Settlement, and one-third (30%) of Metis youth living in the Metis Settlements of Alberta (see Table A.2).

Experiences and outcomes of Métis youth vary by province, territory and Métis group membership

The provinces and territories are responsible for providing education to their populations.^{Note 19} Additionally, educational resources, supports, and programming are available through Métis organizations.^{Note 20} This may be reflected in the different educational outcomes of Métis youth who are members of one of the five signatory organizations to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord (see Table A.3).^{Note 21}

Data table for Chart 3

Data table for chart 3
Table summary
The information is grouped by Geography (appearing as row headers), Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement, Member of a Métis organization not included elsewhere, Métis Nation British Columbia, Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan, Manitoba Metis Federation and Métis Nation of Ontario , Non-Indigenous identity and Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Geography	Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement	Member of a Métis organization not included elsewhere	Métis Nation British Columbia, Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan, Manitoba Metis Federation and Métis Nation of Ontario	Non-Indigenous identity	Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta
	percent
Note x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
British Columbia	86	90	94	96	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Alberta	83	95	93	93	67
Saskatchewan	83	94	92	94	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Manitoba	83	96	95	94	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Ontario	88	97	95	95	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Quebec	76	93	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	89	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Atlantic provinces	91	97	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	94	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Territories	79	84	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	94	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act

The majority of Métis youth who reported membership in Métis Nation British Columbia (MNBC) (94%), Métis Nation of Alberta (MNA) (93%), Métis Nation – Saskatchewan (MN-S) (92%), Manitoba Metis Federation (MMF) (95%) and Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO) (95%) had completed high school in 2021, as had non-Indigenous youth (93%). The results are similar for Métis who reported membership in a non-signatory organization.

Nearly 9 in 10 Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement had completed high school in British Columbia (86%), Alberta (83%), Saskatchewan (83%), Manitoba (83%), Ontario (88%) and the Atlantic provinces (91%). These shares were slightly lower in Quebec (76%) and the territories (79%). In the Metis Settlements of Alberta, two-thirds (67%) of Métis youth had completed high school.

Data table for Chart 4

Data table for chart 3
Table summary
The information is grouped by Geography (appearing as row headers), Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement, Member of a Métis organization not included elsewhere, Métis Nation British Columbia, Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan,Manitoba Metis Federation and Métis Nation of Ontario, Non-Indigenous identity and Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Geography	Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement	Member of a Métis organization not included elsewhere	Métis Nation British Columbia, Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan,Manitoba Metis Federation and Métis Nation of Ontario	Non-Indigenous identity	Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta
	percent
Note x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
British Columbia	45	71	65	72	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Alberta	41	68	64	66	31
Saskatchewan	42	x	61	66	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Manitoba	37	60	64	66	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Ontario	55	78	73	75	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Quebec	63	83	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	78	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Atlantic provinces	63	79	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	69	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act
Territories	48	42	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act	71	x suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act

The rate of postsecondary participation was relatively high among Métis youth who reported membership in an organization that is signatory to the Canada-Métis Nation Accord. Nearly two thirds of MN-S (61%), MMF (64%), MNA (64%) and MNBC (65%) members aged 19 to 30 and three-quarters (73%) of their MNO counterparts were attending or had completed postsecondary education in 2021. Members of these organizations can access support for Métis Nation students pursuing postsecondary education, including financial assistance, career counselling, student cultural support and more.^{Note 22}

These shares were similar to those of Métis youth who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement in Quebec (63%) and the Atlantic provinces (63%). Postsecondary participation rates were slightly lower among Métis who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement in the remaining provinces and territories, ranging from one-third (37%) in Manitoba to just over half (55%) in Ontario. Those who reported membership in the Metis Settlements of Alberta also participated in postsecondary education at a lower rate (31%).

The share of non-Indigenous youth aged 19 to 30 participating in postsecondary education ranged from two-thirds (66%) in the Prairie provinces to three-quarters (78%) in Quebec.

Members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta, Métis Nation – Saskatchewan, and Métis residing in the Atlantic provinces and the territories were more likely to live in relatively remote areas, relative to other Métis groups and non-Indigenous youth

The availability of essential services such as education facilities, health care and retail business in a province or territory is related to whether an individual can successfully pursue education, particularly high school. Remote communities incur high costs in providing essential services, including education, resulting in outdated infrastructure and higher staff turnover rates.^{Note 23}

Overall, Métis were more likely than non-Indigenous youth to reside in relatively remote areas.^{Note 24 Note 25} Further, members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta and Métis residing in the territories were the most likely to reside in relatively remote communities.

Data table for Chart 5

Data table for chart 5
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for chart 5 Relatively accessible area, Less accessible area and Relatively remote area , calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Relatively accessible area	Less accessible area	Relatively remote area
	percent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Atlantic provinces
Métis	43	25	31
Non-Indigenous identity	59	30	11
Quebec
Métis	80	13	7
Non-Indigenous identity	94	5	1
Ontario
Member of Métis Nation of Ontario	77	12	11
Non-Indigenous identity	98	2	1
Manitoba
Member of Manitoba Metis Federation	81	6	13
Non-Indigenous identity	88	7	5
Saskatchewan
Member of Métis Nation – Saskatchewan	44	30	26
Non-Indigenous identity	63	26	11
Alberta
Member of a Metis Settlement of Alberta	44	8	48
Member of Métis Nation of Alberta	78	12	9
Non-Indigenous identity	89	8	3
British Columbia
Member of Métis Nation British Columbia	66	23	12
Non-Indigenous identity	90	7	3
Territories
Métis	0	46	54
Non-Indigenous identity	0	75	25

Despite the challenges faced by a larger share of Métis residing in relatively remote areas, where access to essential services can be limited, high school completion rates were high for many Métis youth (see Table A.4).

Métis residing in relatively remote areas belonging to MNO (95%) had completed high school in equal proportions to those residing in relatively accessible areas (95%). Further, this share was comparable with that of non-Indigenous youth residing in relatively accessible (94%) and relatively remote (90%) areas.

Nearly 9 in 10 members of and MNBC (90%), MMF (89%), MN-S (86%) and MNA (87%) residing in relatively remote areas had completed high school in 2021, a somewhat lower share than their counterparts residing in relatively accessible areas (-6 percentage points, -8 percentage points, -8 percentage points and -7 percentage points, respectively). A similar result was observed for Métis youth who did not report membership in a Métis organization who were residing in a relatively remote area (79%), compared with those in a relatively accessible area (85%).

Finally, those residing in the Metis Settlements of Alberta were more than five times (48%) as likely as members of MNA (9%) or non-Indigenous youth (3%) to reside in relatively remote areas in Alberta. Less than two-thirds (60%) of members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta residing in relatively remote areas had completed high school in 2021, compared with three-quarters (75%) of those residing in relatively accessible areas.^{Note 26}

Additional factors that affect education include caring for children and financial stress

Many factors can affect an individual’s educational pursuits. Typically, young parents who have additional familial responsibilities are less likely to attend school, leading to lower rates of high school completion and participation in postsecondary education.^{Note 27} This is also true for individuals living in low-income households, who may seek employment rather than education. As these are known determinants of educational attainment, policies and programs have been developed by governments and Métis organizations to provide support where needed.

In 2021, women aged 19 to 30 who reported membership in the Metis Settlements of Alberta were nearly three times as likely to be parents as non-Indigenous women (43% and 15%, respectively) (see Table A.5). Among reported members of the Metis Settlements of Alberta, three-quarters (72%) of non-parents had completed high school as of 2021, compared with half (55%) of those who were parents (see Table A.6).

While Métis women who reported membership in a signatory Métis organization were also more likely to be parents than their non-Indigenous counterparts, their high school completion rate was comparable (89% and 87%, respectively). These individuals may benefit from policies developed by the Métis Nation in partnership with the Government of Canada, such as the principles of the Métis Nation Early Learning and Child Care Framework.^{Note 28} These principles were developed to provide “programs and services [that] support improved education, health and social outcomes for young Métis children, rooted in Métis culture.”

Additionally, in 2021, a higher proportion of Métis women who did not report membership in a Métis organization or Settlement were living in low-income households (14%), compared with Métis women who reported membership in signatory (8%) or non-signatory (7%) organizations and non-Indigenous women (10%).

Among Métis women who did not report membership in a Métis organization or Settlement, nearly half (49%) of those who did not live in low-income households participated in postsecondary education, compared with one-third (30%) of those who lived in low-income households. A similar pattern was observed for those who reported membership in a signatory or non-signatory Métis organization.

Financial assistance to support Métis Nation students pursuing postsecondary education is available through several programs, including the Métis Nation Post-Secondary Education Strategy, which may contribute to the relatively low share of Métis youth who were members of a signatory Métis organization living in low-income households.^{Note 29}

High school completion for Métis youth aged 19 to 30 years has increased over time^{Note 30}

Between 2016 and 2021, the proportion of Métis men and women with a high school diploma (or equivalent) increased (see table A.7). The proportion of Métis men who had completed high school increased from 81% in 2016 to 86% in 2021. For Métis women, the increase was from 86% to 90% over the same period. At the same time, high school completion for non-Indigenous men and women remained within 1 percentage point.

Métis youth were pursuing their education later in life, relative to non-Indigenous youth

For Métis, lifelong learning is linked to community well-being and extends beyond learning in the formal education system.^{Note 31} Because Métis may have different pathways to learning, examining their education outcomes over a longer period may better reflect their relationship to education.

Participation in postsecondary education was 8 percentage points higher for Métis members of Metis Settlements of Alberta when the study’s age range was expanded from 19 to 30 year to 19 to 45 (see Table A.8).

Additionally, among Métis men who did not report membership in an organization or Settlement, 40% of those aged 19 to 30 participated in postsecondary education, compared with 46% of those in the expanded age range. Similarly, postsecondary participation for women in this group increased by 5 percentage point (55% and 60%, respectively).

For members of signatory and non-signatory Métis organizations and non-Indigenous people aged 19 to 45, participation in postsecondary education remained within 1 percentage point of the smaller age range.

Data table for Chart 6

Data table for chart 6
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for chart 6 Age 19 to 30, Age 19 to 45, Men (plus), 95% Confidence limits, Women (plus), 95% Confidence limits, Men (plus), 95% Confidence limits, Women (plus) and 95% Confidence limits, calculated using from, to, from, to, from, to, from, to and percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Age 19 to 30						Age 19 to 45
	Men (plus)	95% Confidence limits		Women (plus)	95% Confidence limits		Men (plus)	95% Confidence limits		Women (plus)	95% Confidence limits
		from	to		from	to		from	to		from	to
	percent
Note: The category “men+” includes men, boys and some non-binary people, while the category “women+” includes women, girls and some non-binary people. Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Not a member of a Métis organization or Settlement	40.50	1.06	1.06	55.64	1.12	1.11	46.08	0.75	0.76	60.02	0.72	0.71
Non-Indigenous identity	67.91	0.12	0.12	79.31	0.10	0.10	68.89	0.08	0.08	78.79	0.07	0.07

Conclusion

The health and well-being of Métis draw on knowledge from their communities and land, alongside early learning programs and elementary, secondary and postsecondary education.^{Note 32} This paper explores the gaps in educational outcomes between Métis and non-Indigenous youth in Canada and demonstrates that these gaps were unequal among the four groups identified in the analysis.

Métis youth who reported membership in signatory organization of the Canada-Métis Nation Accord achieve educational outcomes nearly equal to their non-Indigenous peers, which may be linked to educational resources, supports and programming available through Métis organizations. However, the experiences of Métis youth are distinct across each province and territory. For example, high school completion rates were consistently higher in relatively accessible areas, compared with relatively remote areas. Those who reported membership in a Metis Settlement of Alberta were more likely to live in a relatively remote area. Improved outcomes may stem from improved access to essential services, including secondary and postsecondary education.^{Note 33}

This study provides an overview of secondary and postsecondary education for Métis youth. Importantly, the outcomes measured in this study are limited to high school completion and participation in postsecondary education. Further research could shed light on alternative measures of success for Métis, such as access to land-based learning, education in Michif or another Indigenous language, and the presence of supports that foster spirituality and cultural connectedness, to capture the experiences and outcomes of Métis youth more fully.

Data sources, methods and limitations

The data used in this study are from the 2021 Census of Population long-form questionnaire.^{Note 34} This survey reports Indigenous identity, educational attainment and other sociodemographic characteristics that are determinants of educational outcomes.^{Note 35} The population of interest is restricted to single-identity Métis and non-Indigenous people aged 19 to 30. This age group was chosen to be inclusive of lifelong learners while limiting the analysis to the contemporary educational context.

The first outcome measured in this study is high school completion, which refers to whether a person has completed a high school or secondary school diploma, graduation certificate or equivalency certificate. A secondary school (high school) diploma or graduation certificate includes academic or vocational high school diplomas or certificates as may be obtained by graduating from a secondary school. High school equivalency certificate includes the successful completion of a high school equivalency test such as the General Educational Development (GED) test, or obtaining an Adult Basic Education (ABE) certificate where it is equivalent to the completion of secondary school.

The second outcome measured in this study is participation in postsecondary education, which includes youth who completed a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree at the time the data were collected or were attending a postsecondary educational institution in the nine-month data collection period. These youth are considered to have begun or completed a postsecondary education program. As those who were participating in postsecondary education are likely to have a high school diploma (or equivalent), respondents to the 2021 Census may be represented in both outcomes examined in this study.

The after-tax low-income measure refers to a fixed percentage (50%) of median adjusted after-tax income of private households. The household after-tax income is adjusted by an equivalence scale to take economies of scale into account. This adjustment for different household sizes reflects the fact that a household’s needs increase, but at a decreasing rate, as the number of members increases. Low-income status (after tax) is based on the 2020 income threshold, which is suitable for the population residing in the territories and on reserve. However, caution should be used when applying low-income concepts to the territories, on reserve and Inuit Nunangat. The existence of substantial in-kind transfers (such as subsidized housing), economies based on sharing and consumption from own production (such as products from hunting, farming or fishing), differences in cost of living and expenditure patterns, and challenges in data collection (such as non-response), must be considered when interpreting low-income statistics.

Beginning in 2021, the Census of Population asked questions about the sex at birth and gender of individuals. While data on sex at birth are needed to measure certain indicators, as of the 2021 Census, gender (and not sex) is the standard variable used in concepts and classifications. For more details on the new gender concept, see Age, Sex at Birth and Gender Reference Guide, Census of Population, 2021.

Given that the non-binary population is small, data aggregation to a two-category gender variable is sometimes necessary to protect the confidentiality of responses. Individuals in the category “non-binary people” are distributed into the other two gender categories. Unless otherwise indicated in the text, the category “men” includes men (or boys) and some non-binary people, while the category “women” includes women (or girls) and some non-binary persons.

The term “Two-Spirit,” which is specific to some Indigenous peoples of North America, falls within the response category of “non-binary.” For the population aged 15 and older, this response was provided in greater proportion by non-binary people living in Western Canada, especially in Manitoba (4.8%) where a large Indigenous population (First Nations people, Métis and Inuit) resides.

Two fact sheets on gender concepts, Filling the gaps: Information on gender in the 2021 Census and Canada is the first country to provide census data on transgender and non-binary people, are also available.

Appendix

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