Section 4 A few key sectors for the vitality of official-language minority communities

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• 4.1 Health
• 4.2 Justice
• 4.3 Education
• 4.4 Media, arts and culture
• 4.5 Community
• 4.6 Employment and income characteristics

The Roadmap for Canada's Linguistic Duality 2008 – 2013 calls for investing in five key sectors: health, justice, arts and culture, economic development and immigration. The last of these was briefly discussed in the previous section and was dealt with in an analytical report released by Statistics Canada (Houle and Corbeil, 2010). This section will present statistics on the other four key sectors identified in the Roadmap. Also, the Roadmap includes financial support for education in the minority language, a sector identified as being of great importance for the future of official-language minorities in Canada (Lord, 2008); therefore, we will devote a section to it.

Drawing on data from the Survey on the Vitality of Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) and the census, we will provide general information on the presence of French and the situation of Francophones in each of these sectors.

4.1 Health

A common language between patients and health care professionals is one of the key elements of access to health care services and the effectiveness of the services provided. Language barriers can mean that some members of minority Francophone communities are less well served by health care services. With this in mind, it is important to examine the situation of Alberta's Francophone communities regarding various aspects of access to health care services.

In the 2006 Census, 15% of the medical doctors working in Alberta—that is, 635 out of a total of 4,265—reported that they were able to conduct a conversation in French, while 2.5% reported using French at least on a regular basis¹ in their work.² For nurses, who numbered 32,215, the proportions were 7% and 1% respectively.

The proportion of doctors and nurses who are able to conduct a conversation in French is much higher than Francophones' relative share of the Alberta population. Nevertheless, the results of the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) show that almost all (97%) of Alberta Francophones report using English in their contacts with different health care professionals about whom information was collected in that survey: family doctors, nurses, telephone health line or telehealth service professionals and professionals in other places that people go to obtain care.

The SVOLM also reveals that 26% of Franco-Albertans report that it is important or very important to them to obtain health services in French. Nevertheless, English is used almost exclusively with the family doctor (95%), with professionals and specialists in other places where health care services are provided (94%), with the telephone health line professionals (95%), and with nurses (91%). Lack of knowledge of French by health care professionals, as perceived by the respondents, is the main reason cited by Francophones to explain why they are not served in that language during their visits/consultations. This reason thus greatly influences the main language used during consultations.

Overall, the results of the SVOLM and the census show that three important factors affect the extent to which one language or the other is used with health professionals: the weak concentration of Francophones in a municipality of residence, the availability of professionals with knowledge of French and the main language of those requesting services.

The presence of French-speaking professionals as well as professionals able to conduct a conversation in the minority language is likely to increase access to health care services in that language. It may also be conducive to a stronger presence and more widespread use of the language in this key sector of the public sphere. However, the gap observed between the proportion of these professionals able to conduct a conversation in French and the population of Francophones using French to obtain health services suggests that the active offer of services in the minority language is possibly an issue that should be examined more closely.

It is also important to examine whether Francophones who report having French as their main language were more likely to use French in their interactions with health care professionals than those with English as their main language. It seems clear that the lack of use of the minority official language by Francophones for whom French is the main language—that is, the language in which they feel most at ease—does not depend on the same factors as in the case of Francophones who have made a language shift resulting in their now being more at ease speaking English. The results of the SVOLM reflect the fact that whatever their main language, the vast majority of Francophones (97%) use English in their contacts with different health professionals. However, it is hardly surprising that in their interactions with their family doctor, Francophones who have English as their main language are proportionally more likely to use English (99%) than those with French as their main language (89%).

Information drawn from the SVOLM clearly shows that for Francophones, obtaining health care services in the language of their choice does not necessarily mean obtaining services in French. Since 54% of Alberta Francophones have English as their main language, it would not be surprising if French were not their "language of choice" for obtaining health care services.

4.2 Justice

An examination of results from the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) in the field of  justice sheds light on the extent to which the French language is present in the institutions that ensure its use in the public sphere by Alberta Francophones. By measuring access to justice practitioners who are able to converse in French, it is possible to document a phenomenon that is perceived by Francophones outside Quebec as being very important for the status of that language and the future of French-speaking minority communities. In this regard, the Canadian government undertook in the Roadmap to ensure that Canadians will have better access to justice services in the minority official language. In the case of Alberta, the Languages Act enacted in 1988 makes English the sole official language of the province in the parliamentary, legislative and judicial domains (Gagné: 1999). Nonetheless, Article 4 of this Act authorizes Francophones to use French in the Legislative Assembly and before some provincial courts (the Court of Appeal, the Court of Queen's Bench, the Provincial Court and probate court). The Court of Queen's Bench authorizes the accused to file documents written in French, in the name of official bilingualism and freedom of expression; the Court of Appeal also authorizes documents written in French to be filed, provided that an English translation is included (Department of Justice Canada, 2011). Francophones have accordingly, since 1990, had access to the services of the Association des juristes d'expression française de l'Alberta (AJEFA). Also, with respect to criminal law, as stipulated by the Criminal Code of Canada, Franco-Albertans, like all residents of Canada, are entitled to a trial and a preliminary inquiry in French.

In Alberta, the SVOLM results reveal that access to these services in French does not appear to be highly valued by a majority of Francophones, since 55% feel that if they needed the services of a lawyer, it would  be not very important or not important that the lawyer could speak French.

Interactions with the justice system and its representatives, including lawyers and the police, are not widespread in the population. Of Alberta's approximately 54,790 adult Francophones, 35% reported that they had used the services of a lawyer in the two years preceding the survey, while 17% had come into contact with the municipal police and 13% with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).

Because the language barrier can hinder access to justice, the Canadian government has made it a priority to train professionals who can provide service in the minority official language. According to the 2006 Census, Alberta had 1,350 lawyers able to conduct a conversation in French, which represents 17% of the lawyers in the province (see Table 4.1). As to police officers—who number 6,605—12% reported being able to conduct a conversation in French (see Table 4.2).

In addition to these statistics on the availability or potential pool of justice system professionals who are able to use French when interacting with Alberta Francophones, tables 4.1 and 4.2 show their knowledge and use of French in their work. According to the 2006 Census, 3% of Alberta police officers reported using French at least regularly at work. This rate is much lower than that for police officers' ability to conduct a conversation in French, which is 12% (see Table 4.2). The same is true for lawyers: their rate of use of French at least regularly in their work (1%) is also much lower than the proportion who are able to conduct a conversation in French (17%)³ (see Table 4.1)

Table 4.1 Knowledge and use of minority language by lawyers, Alberta, 2006

According to 2006 Census data, the number of police officers who use French in their work in Alberta is lower than the number of Francophone police officers. Thus, whereas nearly 180 of the provinces' police officers reported using French at least regularly in their work, 255 had this language as their first official language spoken (FOLS) (see Table 4.2).

Table 4.2 Knowledge and use of minority language by police officers (excludes senior management), Alberta, 2006

The results of the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) indicate that interactions of Alberta Francophones with municipal police⁴ are generally in English. Approximately four Francophones in five used only English in their interactions with municipal police. When using the services of a lawyer, 86% of Francophones used only English.

4.3 Education

4.3.1 Children

In Alberta, following the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963), the School Act was amended in 1968 and instruction in French was authorized in the province's schools, for up to 50% of the school day, from grades 3 to 9, and then in 1971, up to grade 12. Teaching compulsory subjects in French had previously been banned since 1892. In 1976, Alberta adopted regulation 250/76, which allowed the use of French for up to 80 per cent of the school day for all residents of the province. In 1982, Section 23 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed certain education rights to official-language minorities across Canada, including the right to have their children educated in their mother tongue. That same year, the Association de parents de langue française Georges-et-Julia-Bugnet—headed by Jean-Claude Mahé, Angéline Martel and Paul Dubé—approached the Alberta Department of Education and the two Edmonton school boards requesting the creation of a French-language elementary school to be administered by Francophone parents. When their request was denied, the Association brought the matter—known as the Mahé case—before the courts, citing Section 23. Two years later, two Francophone public elementary schools opened their doors, under the management of the Edmonton Catholic School Board and the Calgary Catholic School Board.

In 1985, the Court of Queen's Bench ruled that Francophones are entitled to a degree of exclusive management of their education. The Mahé case was then referred to the Court of Appeal, which rendered its decision in 1987. While the decision of the Court of Appeal granted Francophones the right to exclusive management of their schools, it also held that the number of francophone students was too small to allow the creation of a Francophone school system in Edmonton. The case was then brought before the Supreme Court of Canada, which in 1990 recognized the right of Francophones to manage their schools. In the meantime, in 1988, a new School Act had been enacted in the province, stating that the official-language minority was entitled to instruction in French. Accordingly, Alberta's School Act was amended in 1993, henceforth granting Franco-Albertan the right to manage their schools. For this purpose, three Francophone school boards were created.

Today, there are 34 Francophone schools in Alberta, managed by the province's five regional Francophone school boards. These schools provide instruction in French as a "first language" from kindergarten to grade 12. At the postsecondary level, it has been possible, since the fall of 2010, to pursue an education in French at the college level in Edmonton. Additionally, the Saint-Jean campus of the University of Alberta offers various programs at the bachelor's and master's levels in French (FCFA, 2009).

In a minority situation, French schools are assigned special status because of their role as an agent of socialization to French culture, transmission of the French language to children and maintenance of skills in that language. School is a public Francophone environment which, along with the family, can help Francophone community life to develop and flourish.

Table 4.3 shows enrolments in French immersion programs and regular French-language programs. As may be seen, enrolments in immersion programs are greater than in regular programs. It is important to note that immersion programs are attended by both Francophone and non-Francophone students. In general, enrolments have increased both in French immersion programs and in regular programs. However, the increase in enrolments in regular programs has accelerated since 2004/2005. Statistics for 2001/2002 stand out from those for other years in that enrolments in regular programs registered a decrease (-12%) rather than an increase.

Table 4.3 Number of children registered in French immersion and in regular French programmes at the primary and secondary levels in public schools, Alberta, 2000/2001 to 2006/2007

It is important to examine here the extent to which French-language schools are attended by children eligible to attend them, along with the factors that influence decisions concerning children's language of instruction. Data from the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) shed useful light on this aspect of the school situation of children of Francophone parents in Alberta: they can be used to estimate the number of children eligible for education in French who attend a French-language school or are enrolled in an immersion program. Additionally, these data can be used to examine the link between attending a French-language school and the use of languages, particularly at home and with friends.

In Alberta, 17,140 children of Francophone parents were enrolled in elementary or secondary school at the time of the survey. Of those children, 43% were receiving an education in French, including 25% in a French school and 18% in a French immersion program within an English school. Of the rest of such children enrolled in elementary or secondary school, 54% were attending an English-language school (regular program). The results obtained suggest that the language in which children are educated may be related to the proportion of exogamous couples, the existence of language transfer toward English for many Francophones under 21 years of age and the fact that a sizeable proportion of Francophones feel more at ease in English than French. As an example, of the 15,070 children with at least one Francophone parent, the majority (66%) were from French-English exogamous families. Of the children living in this type of family, 64% were attending the regular program of an English-language school.

The SVOLM also shows that a more popular choice for parents of the youngest children seems to be having them attend a French-language school or a French immersion program in an English school. The results suggest that some children may abandon French school and French immersion programs in favour of English school during the transition between elementary school and secondary school. The SVOLM results show that approximately one in two children was enrolled in a French-language school or a French immersion program at the elementary level. This is higher than the proportion of children enrolled in these types of schools at the secondary level. As for the proportion of children enrolled in the regular program in English, it is 45% at the elementary level and 69% at the secondary level.

Apart from the environmental characteristics mentioned above, other factors influence the choice of the language of their child's school. In particular, the language that was used by the parents in their own educational pathway appears to have some influence on their choice of their children's language of instruction or school system. Thus, of the 9,120 children with at least one parent who had been educated at the elementary and secondary levels in French, approximately 51% were attending a French-language school or a French immersion program and 50% spoke French at home, including 26% most often and 24% on a regular basis.

Data from the SVOLM do not yield statistically significant results in terms of the link between children's attendance at a French school and the sole or predominant use of French at home or with friends; nor of the link between school attendance in French and the ability to conduct a conversation in French. However, a link can be established between attendance at a French school and use of French in various contexts. Thus, the majority of children who attend a French-language school use French, alone or with English, when speaking with their friends (62%) and are able to use it to conduct a conversation in almost all cases (85%). On the other hand, more than one child in two who attends a French school uses only English at home.

4.3.2 Adults

4.3.2.1 Highest level of schooling

The highest level of schooling of Alberta Francophones in 2006 is an important indicator of the progress made since the 1971 Census, which was conducted shortly after the Dunton–Laurendeau Royal Commission completed its work. Based on statistics from the 1961 Census, the Commission's work described the very large disparities observed between Francophones and Anglophones in Canada, with respect to education as well as to labour market status and various spheres of economic activity. Notably because of compulsory education up to age 16⁵ and the growing importance assigned to education by governments, employers and the general public, the disparities between Francophones and Anglophones in Canada have greatly diminished over time.

To illustrate this phenomenon, we will first examine the results shown in Chart 4.1 concerning the situation in 2006. As may be seen, Francophones (20.5%) and Anglophones (20.3%) are almost equally as likely to have a university degree at or above the bachelor level. Francophones (18.7%) are also proportionately as likely as Francophones (18,6%) to have no certificate, diploma or degree. However, a slightly higher proportion of Anglophones (23.7%) than Francophones (20.6%) had a high school diploma or the equivalent.

Chart 4.1 Highest certificate, diploma or degree obtained by first official language spoken, persons aged 25 years or over, Alberta 2006

The findings that emerge from a reading of the above chart cover the overall population aged 25 and over and therefore reflect both the present and the past educational situation of the language groups.

Chart 4.2 clearly illustrates this point when we look at selected sub-populations defined according to their age group. It shows that among persons aged 65 and over, a larger proportion of Francophones (44%) than Anglophones (39%) have no certificate, diploma or degree. Conversely, among persons aged 25 to 34, this proportion is higher for Anglophones (14%) than for Francophones (7%). As may also be seen, Anglophones aged 65 and over are proportionally more likely than Francophones to have a college or university diploma. On the other hand, among persons aged 25 to 34, Francophones are more likely than Anglophones to have a college diploma (25% versus 22%) or a university degree (31% versus 26%). This is partly due to the progress made in the education of Alberta-born Francophones, as well as to the high education level of Francophone immigrants, who are proportionally more likely than Anglophone immigrants to have a university certificate or degree.

Chart 4.2 Highest certificate, diploma or degree obtained, by first official language spoken and age group, Alberta, 2006

As just noted, an examination of the educational status of young adults must take into account an important factor: the place of birth. For example, among both Anglophones and Francophones, immigrants are generally more likely to have a university degree, particularly because selection criteria for immigrants to Canada include their level of education. In 2006, among Francophones aged 25 to 34, 50% of those born outside Canada had a university degree, compared with 32% of those born in Alberta and 26% born in another province or territory (see chart 4.3). At the lowest education levels, we observe the corollary to this situation: Francophones born outside Canada are less likely than other Franco-Albertans to have a high school diploma as their highest level of schooling or to have no certificate, diploma or degree.

Chart 4.3 Highest certificate, diploma or degree obtained by Francophones aged 25 to 34 years, by place of birth, Alberta, 2006

One of the greatest changes resulting from the profound social transformations and educational reforms of the 1960s is the entry of large numbers of women into postsecondary educational institutions, especially universities. In 1971, the proportion of women holding a university degree was two to three times smaller than the proportion of men, depending on the age group (Corbeil, 2003). In 2006, among Francophones in Alberta, the data show that for persons aged 65 and over—that is, those who were at least 30 years of age in 1971, the proportion of women holding a university diploma is 9%, compared with 12% for men in this age group (see table 4.4). In contrast, among 20- to 24-year-olds, the situation is reversed: the proportion holding such a diploma is 7% for men and 15% for women. Also, in this age group, 16% of men have no certificate, diploma or degree compared with 12% of women. In short, women under 65 years of age are proportionally more likely to have a university diploma or degree than their male counterparts, whereas the latter are proportionally more likely to have no certificate, diploma or degree or to have a vocational or trade school diploma.

Table 4.4 Highest certificate, diploma or degree obtained by Francophones, by age group and sex, Alberta, 2006

4.3.2.2 Adults' language of instruction

As indicated above, in Alberta overall, approximately half of the children with at least one French-speaking parent are enrolled in the regular program of a French-language elementary school or in a French immersion program. At the secondary level, the proportion is lower. What about the language of instruction of adults who responded to the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM)? According to survey responses concerning the language in which respondents pursued part or all of their education, the presence of French varies from one age group to the next and from one education level to the next.

The SVOLM results reveal that a sizable proportion (75%) of Alberta Francophones had all or part of their education in French at the elementary level. This proportion declines as young people pursue their educational pathway, then rises again in academic programs at the university level. Thus, while 55% of Francophones pursued all or part of their secondary education in French, the proportion is 33% for those who completed non-university postsecondary education and 62% for those who pursued a university education. However, it should be noted that among all Francophones who were living in Alberta in 2006 and who pursued all or part of their university education in French, 57% were born in Quebec or outside Canada. The results also show that the proportion of French-speaking persons who were schooled in French at the elementary level declines from one age group to the next. Thus, that proportion is 84% for persons aged 18 to 24, whereas it is 52% for those aged 65 and over.

4.4 Media, arts and culture

Support for the arts and culture is one of the key elements targeted by the Roadmap, which recognizes the essential role played by arts and culture in the development of minority official-language communities.

The Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) targets six media for measuring access to cultural products in the minority language: television; the Internet; radio; newspapers; books; and live performances and arts events. These days, the Internet and cable television facilitate access to these media in various languages and from many countries, thereby increasing the availability of French-language cultural products throughout Canada.

The SVOLM results reveal that Franco-Albertans, like their Anglophone counterparts, are big consumers of the media, led by television (99%) and radio (88%) (see Table 4.5).

Table 4.5 Proportion of Francophones by use of certain media (all languages included), Alberta, 2006

A majority of Alberta Francophones are inclined to report that they read newspapers (93%), watch television (84%), listen to the radio (84%), access the Internet (83%) and read books (75%) mainly or only in English. Access to French-language media is therefore not the only factor that influences consumption in the minority language: the SVOLM results reveal that despite technological advances facilitating access to various French-language media, English predominates in media use.

Table 4.6 Proportion of Francophones by language used with certain media, Alberta, 2006

4.5 Community

Individuals' civic engagement and their participation in community activities are generally recognized as dimensions of civic life that contribute to creating and maintaining social support networks. Also, "social capital (broadly defined as participation in social networks) is increasingly being understood as a key component of community development or a key aspect of the 'capacity' of a community to develop." (Rothwell and Turcotte, 2006, p. 1)

Data from the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) lend themselves to measuring several dimensions of Francophones' participation in community life. Statistics on participation in volunteer activities, membership in community organizations and informal caregiving can be used to examine the extent to which Francophones are engaged in the life of their community.⁶

The SVOLM results show that at least one-quarter of Alberta's Francophones participate in one of the activities for which data were collected. Thus, 26% of adult Francophones reported having given unpaid assistance with everyday activities to someone not living in their household in the 12 months preceding the survey; 29% reported belonging to an organization, network or association; and 38% reported volunteering.

When Franco-Albertans participate in community activities, their language of interaction varies depending on the type of activity. However, English is the language that Francophones favour overall for these activities. English is used mainly or only by 82% of Francophones when they do volunteer work, 73% when they are involved in organizations, networks or associations and 63% when they provide social support for daily activities to persons not living in the household. Note that assistance with day-to-day activities is most often provided to family members (excluding children) (44%). Consequently, family and friends appear to be quite important in the networks of Alberta Francophones. For example, in case of illness, 41% report that they would turn to other members of their family for support, while 25% would turn to their children and 12% to their friends. The use of French in social support activities thus seems to be associated mainly with the private sphere.

According to the SVOLM, nearly two-thirds of Alberta Francophones report that it is very important or important to them that individuals or organizations work to develop the Francophone community.

4.6 Employment and income characteristics

Data from both the census and the Survey on the Vitality of the Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) can be used to examine the extent to which Alberta Francophones and Anglophones differ with regard to the industry sectors in which they work. It is possible to identify similarities and differences in how the language groups are distributed among the various industry sectors.

A brief analysis of 2006 Census data reveals that Alberta Francophones are proportionally more likely than their Anglophone counterparts to work in particular sectors such as construction (10.4% for Francophones compared with 8.6% for Anglophones), educational services (9.3% compared with 6.2%) and public administration (6.8% compared with 4.6%) (see Chart 4.4). Anglophones, for their part, are more likely to have jobs in retail trade, professional, scientific and technical services and accommodation and food services. In the other major industry sectors, there are few differences between the two groups.

Chart 4.4 Proportion of workers by industry sector and first official language spoken, Alberta, 2006

Table 4.7 Distribution of Francophone workers by industry sector, Alberta, 2006

4.6.1 Use of French at work by industry sector

Of all Alberta workers aged 15 and over, 1.5% use French most often or on a regular basis in their work. Among those with French as their first official language spoken, this proportion is 34.1%, with 11.4% using French most often and 22.7% using it regularly (that is, less often than the predominant language).

An examination of Table 4.7 reveals that Francophones working in construction, education, retail trade and health care and social assistance account for more than one-third (36%) of the province's Francophone workers. What about the use of French by the Francophones in these sectors? It is hardly surprising that Francophones in the education sector are proportionally more likely to have French as their main language of work; 44% use it most often while 19% report using it on a regular basis. Francophones in the agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting sector, who account for only 4% of the province's Francophone workers, are solidly in second place as regards the use of French most often at work (25%). However, Francophones in the public administration sector are proportionally more likely (45%) to report using French as a secondary language at work.

Chart 4.5 Use of French most often and regularly at work by Francophones, by industry sector, Alberta, 2006

4.6.2 Income differentials

Historically, Francophones in Canada have been economically disadvantaged; Franco-Albertans were no exception. Since individuals' income level is highly dependent on their education level, their occupation and the industry sector in which they work (to name only these factors), it would appear that the substantial changes within Francophone communities over the past 40 years have had major effects on their income level.

It is beyond the purpose and scope of this report to analyse the factors influencing how income differentials between the language groups have evolved. However, statistics from the 2006 Census suggest that the status of Franco-Albertans has greatly improved over time.

The 2006 statistics reveal that the mean and median incomes of persons with French as their first official language spoken are slightly higher than those of Anglophones. Men with French as their only first official language spoken (FOLS) have a mean income that is $500 higher than that of men with English as their only FOLS. A larger gap is observed between these two language groups with respect to median income, since that of Francophone men is $3,200 more than that of Anglophone men. Among women, the mean and median incomes of Francophones are respectively $1,400 and $2,000 higher than those of Anglophones (see Table 4.8). As for the mean and median incomes of persons with French and English as first official languages spoken, they are much lower than those of Francophones and Anglophones. For the population with a dual FOLS, the lower incomes would seem to be explained by the fact that these people are mainly immigrants. A number of studies have shown that despite a higher education level, immigrants have a higher unemployment rate and lower incomes than their Canadian-born counterparts (Frenette and Morissette, 2003; Picot and Hou, 2003; Zietsma, 2010).

Table 4.8 Average and median income for males and females by first official language spoken, Alberta, 2006

In light of the historical context described above, it is clear that the median income of the two language groups is age-related, with older Francophones having a lower median income than their Anglophone counterparts. The statistics shown in charts 4.5-a and 4.5-b reflect the fact that among persons aged 65 and over, the median income of Anglophones is higher than that of Francophones, for both men and women (although the income gaps are smaller for women). On the other hand, among 25- to 44-year-olds, the median incomes of both women and men who speak French are higher than those of their Anglophone counterparts, by $3,300 and $3,100, respectively. As for men and women for whom both French and English is their first official language spoken, their median incomes are lower than those of Francophones and Anglophones. However, the income gaps are greater for men than for women.

Chart 4.5-a Median income of women, by age group and first official language spoken, Alberta, 2006

Chart 4.5-b Median income of men, by age group and first official language spoken, Alberta, 2006

Several factors may explain the income differential between Francophones and Anglophones. Although results on the general population reveal that, for both men and women, Francophones' mean incomes exceed those of Anglophones, these differences are due in part to a number of characteristics that distinguish these two populations. For example, as previously noted, Alberta's Francophone population under 65 of age is more educated than the Anglophone population. The age structure of the Francophone population is also a factor affecting the mean and median incomes of this population.

A deeper analysis of the census results, in particular using the technique of multivariate statistical analysis, reveals the important role played by age, education, type of place of residence, industry sector and immigrant status, and helps to partly explain these differences. Thus, if Francophones and Anglophones had exactly the same profile with respect to these characteristics—which is not the case—we would not observe any statistically significant differences between the mean incomes of Francophone and Anglophone men or women in Alberta.

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Notes

1. In other words, most often or on a regular basis.
2. On this subject, see Table 2.1 of Health Care Professionals and official-language Minorities in Canada: 2001 and 2006 (Blaser, 2009: p. 20).
3. As in the case of health care professionals, the use of French by lawyers and police officers depends on a number of factors, including the proportion of Francophones in a given community. However, an analysis of these factors is beyond the scope of this statistical portrait.
4. Because of the very small number of members of the official-language minority who had contact with the provincial police or the RCMP, no conclusions regarding them can be drawn from the data obtained in the Survey on the Vitality of Official-Language Minorities.
5. In the case of Alberta, compulsory education was raised to age 17 in 2001.
6. Community involvement is affected by various sociodemographic factors, including age, education level, area of residence and socioeconomic status. However, an analysis of these factors goes beyond the objective of this report.