Spotlight on Canadians: Results from the General Social Survey
Public confidence in Canadian institutions Spotlight on Canadians: Results from the General Social Survey
Public confidence in Canadian institutions

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By Adam Cotter

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Measuring Canadians’ attitudes towards institutions can provide important insights into how members of the Canadian public view key public and private institutions, such as the justice system, schools, Federal Parliament, banking institutions, major corporations, and the media.  In some ways, this information may be considered a measure of their performance, as the quality of the services provided and delivered to the public can suffer when the public lacks confidence (Jang, Lee & Gibbs 2015). In addition, having higher levels of confidence and satisfaction in public institutions has been found to foster a sense of belonging to the country and greater social cohesion (Roberts 2007; Letki 2006). More generally, public perceptions can influence the development of social policies and programs (Cao 2014).

Perceptions of institutions are often based on interrelated feelings of confidence and trust in institutions. While some research on perceptions of institutions uses the terms confidence and trust interchangeably, the two are related, but distinct concepts (Barbalet 2009; Luhmann 2000). In this sense, confidence is related to perceptions the institution’s ability to perform its duties, while trust is related to actions, interpersonal experiences and expectations, and perceptions of integrity (Cao 2014; Maslov 2014; Bean 2003). In this report, measures of confidence are questions that specifically ask about an individual’s confidence (i.e., how much confidence do you have in the police?). Additionally, more detailed questions on contact with police, levels of reporting to police, and overall evaluation of police performance covering certain elements of their job are explored as measures of confidence.

Using data from the 2014 General Social Survey (GSS) on Victimization and the 2013 GSS on Social Identity (see Data Sources), this report explores issues of confidence and trust in the government and institutions. Overall levels of confidence, measures of perceived performance, levels of generalized trust, and trust in specific institutions are examined. The impact of geography, socio-demographic and neighbourhood characteristics on perceptions are also discussed. 

Section 1
Canadians have higher confidence in police compared to other institutions

The GSS on Social Identity asked Canadians to indicate their levels of confidence in police, the justice system and courts, the school system, Federal Parliament, banks, major corporations, and the Canadian media, using a scale from 1 (no confidence at all) to 5 (a great deal of confidence).^{Note 1}

About three-quarters (76%) of Canadians aged 15 and over, or almost 22 million, indicated that they have a great deal or some confidence in police, a higher proportion than any other institution examined in this report (Chart 1, Table 1).^{Note 2} This finding is consistent with previous research on confidence in institutions (Grabb et al. 2009).

In 2013, roughly six in ten Canadians expressed a great deal or some confidence in the school system (61%), banks (59%), and the justice system and courts (57%). In comparison, less than half of Canadians had confidence in the media (40%), Federal Parliament (38%), and major corporations (30%).

Almost four in ten (37%) Canadians indicated that they had a great deal of confidence in police, a higher proportion than for any other institution. While Canadians were equally likely to state they had a great deal of confidence or some confidence in police, the proportion of those with a great deal of confidence in other institutions was considerably lower than those stating they had some confidence.

Although fewer Canadians had a great deal or some confidence in the media, Federal Parliament, and major corporations relative to other institutions, they did not rate them entirely unfavourably. For each of these institutions, about four in ten Canadians indicated that they were neither confident nor unconfident. Just under one in ten indicated that they had no confidence at all in major corporations (9%) or Federal Parliament (9%).

Women have more confidence in institutions than men

Generally, women had slightly higher levels of confidence in institutions than men (Chart 2, Table 2). The only exception was the Canadian media, where there was no difference by sex. The largest differences in confidence in institutions were found for banks (63% of women compared to 56% of men) and police (79% of women compared to 73% of men).

Confidence in institutions generally increases with age

For the most part, older Canadians have the highest levels of confidence in institutions. Confidence is generally lowest among Canadians 25 to 34 years of age, before gradually increasing with age and peaking among those 75 years of age and older (Table 2).

The one exception to this trend was the Federal Parliament, where Canadians aged 15 to 24 were the most likely to state they had confidence (50% compared to 38% overall). Canadians between the ages of 15 to 24 also had higher than average levels of confidence in banks, the justice system and courts, and major corporations.

Confidence in institutions lower among Aboriginal people

Overall, Aboriginal people were less likely than non-Aboriginal people to have high levels of confidence in institutions, though they were equally as likely to say that had a great deal or some confidence in banks and major corporations. The most pronounced difference was seen for the justice system and courts, as the proportion of Aboriginal people who stated they had confidence was 15 percentage points lower than for non-Aboriginal people (43% compared to 58%).

Previous research has shown that Aboriginal people are overrepresented in the Canadian correctional system (Perreault 2014; Perreault 2009) and are more likely than non-Aboriginal people to come into contact with the justice system either as victims or accused (Perreault 2011; Perreault 2015).

Visible minorities and immigrants report higher confidence in institutions

While confidence in police did not vary by visible minority status, high levels of confidence were more prevalent among visible minorities for every other institution. For example, 56% of visible minorities stated they had confidence in the Federal Parliament, over 1.5 times higher than the figure (34%) for non-visible minorities.

Similarly, immigrants were more likely to state that they had confidence in each of the institutions compared to non-immigrants, with the most pronounced difference in confidence in Federal Parliament (18 percentage points higher than non-immigrants). Confidence levels were also much higher for the justice system and courts compared to non-immigrants (72% versus 54%).

Furthermore, recent immigrants had higher levels of confidence than established immigrants or those individuals who were born in Canada (Chart 3). More than half of all recent immigrants expressed confidence in each institution, with the exception of major corporations (44%). Previous research suggests that past experiences with institutions can lead to higher levels of confidence among immigrants when they arrive in a new country, which then changes over time to more closely reflect the general levels of confidence of non-immigrants (Roder & Muhlau 2011; Roder & Muhlau 2010).

Similarly, those whose mother tongue is a language other than English or French have more confidence in all institutions compared to Canadians whose mother tongue is English, French, or both. When looking at these three characteristics in conjunction, visible minority immigrants with a non-official language as a mother tongue have much higher levels of confidence in institutions, compared to non-visible minorities born in Canada with English or French as their mother tongue. The largest differences were apparent in the levels of confidence in the justice system and courts and Federal Parliament (24 and 28 percentage points higher, respectively).

Higher education and higher income associated with more confidence in police and justice system

Higher income is associated with higher levels of confidence for many institutions. In particular, Canadians with an annual household income of $150,000 or more had more confidence in police and the justice system and courts than those who reported lower annual incomes (Table 2).

Higher levels of education were also associated with the highest levels of confidence in both police and the justice system and courts, with university educated Canadians having more confidence than those who had completed a post-secondary diploma or certificate, high school, or any level below high school.

Having a university degree was also associated with greater confidence in the school system, as two-thirds of university graduates reported having confidence, 8 percentage points higher than Canadians with a post-secondary certificate or high school diploma.

In contrast, Canadians whose highest level of educational attainment was below high school had the greatest level of confidence in banks (67%), Federal Parliament (45%), and major corporations (38%). However, this may also be related to age, as Canadians aged 15 to 24 had higher than average levels of confidence in each of these institutions. One-third (31%) of Canadians who indicated that their highest level of education completed was below the high school level were between the ages of 15 to 24.

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Confidence in institutions varies by province

In general, levels of confidence in institutions were above average in New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador. More precisely, confidence was above the provincial average for six of the seven institutions in New Brunswick, with the exception of Federal Parliament (six percentage points lower) (Table 4). In Newfoundland and Labrador, while confidence in the justice system and courts and Federal Parliament was on par with the provincial average, confidence in the other institutions was at least five percentage points higher in this province.

In contrast, residents of Quebec and British Columbia tended to have less confidence in institutions than residents of the other provinces. Residents of Quebec had lower than average confidence in five of the seven institutions, while there was no difference in their level of confidence in media and Federal Parliament. In British Columbia, perceived confidence in four of the institutions was below the total of Canada’s provinces, while similar proportions of residents had confidence in banks, media, and major corporations.

At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level, confidence was generally highest in Toronto (Table 5). Residents of Toronto reported the highest confidence in banks, the justice system and courts, and Federal Parliament, while confidence in major corporations was also above the CMA average.

Reflecting the provincial variations, overall confidence was lowest in the Quebec CMA of Montréal, where confidence levels were below the CMA average for five institutions. In particular, residents of Montréal had less confidence than average in police (71%), the school system (59%), banks (53%), the justice system and courts (54%), and major corporations (26%). Residents of Sherbrooke, meanwhile, had lower levels of confidence in four institutions: banks (46%), the justice system and courts (47%), media (32%), and major corporations (20%^{Note E}).

Factors associated with general confidence

Regression models were developed to examine the relative importance of socio-demographic and economic characteristics associated with confidence in institutions. When controlling for other characteristics measured by the GSS, gender remained a predictive factor for five of the seven institutions (Table 6).

Similarly, the regression model also reflected the influence of age, with Canadians aged 75 and over generally having the highest probabilities of confidence in public institutions, all else being equal. The only exceptions were the justice system and courts, where Canadians aged 15 to 24 had a similar probability as older seniors, and Federal Parliament, where 15-to-24-year-olds had the highest probability of confidence.

Being a visible minority, immigrant and having a non-official language as a mother tongue remained closely related to higher confidence in institutions even when controlling for other factors. The sole exception was found with confidence in police, where, after controlling for socio-demographic and economic characteristics, visible minorities had a lower probability of confidence in police (0.71) compared to non-visible minorities (0.77).^{Note 3}

While the impacts of gender, age, marital status, education, income, visible minority status, immigrant status, and mother tongue remained predictors of confidence for some or all institutions, not all characteristics remained significant. Notably, once other demographic characteristics were held constant, Aboriginal identity was no longer a significant predictor of confidence in institutions, with the exception of the justice system and courts, where non-Aboriginal people had a slightly higher probability of confidence (0.57 compared to 0.52).

Section 2
Perceptions of police performance

Along with overall feelings of confidence, perceptions of institutions can also reflect what is believed to be the level of performance of particular tasks or duties. That is, does the public believe an institution is carrying out the tasks associated with its mandate? In 2014, the GSS on Victimization collected information on measures of performance for one institution – police. While limited to one institution, examining the perception of police performance provides important insight into the institution in which Canadians are most confident.  Police are the most visible component of the criminal justice system (Roberts 2007), and perceptions of police performance can impact Canadians’ perceptions of police legitimacy, willingness to report crime, and levels of cooperation with police (Sindall et al. 2012; Roberts 2010; Sunshine & Tyler 2003; Tyler & Blader 2003).

Most Canadians believe police are doing a good job

The GSS on Victimization asked Canadians to evaluate if their local police service is doing a good job, an average job, or a poor job based on six categories: being approachable and easy to talk to, ensuring the safety of citizens, promptly responding to calls, treating people fairly, enforcing the laws, and providing information on ways to prevent crime.  

In 2014, the majority of Canadians believed that the police were doing a good job at each of the six specific measures (Chart 4). Of note, Canadians rated police highest at being approachable and easy to talk to, as nearly three-quarters (73%) of believed their local police were doing a good job in that area.  About six in ten (62%) believed police are doing a good job providing information on crime prevention, the lowest proportion of any of the measures.

Perception of police performance has improved over the past decade

Canadian’s perceptions of police have become more favourable over time, with more Canadians believing police are doing a good job compared to a decade ago (Chart 5).  While a similar proportion of Canadians believed police were doing a good job at being approachable and easy to talk to compared to 2004, the proportion of Canadians stating police were doing a good job increased for each of the remaining five categories.

Over the past decade, the ranking of the six police performance indicators has remained fairly stable. In 2014, as in 2004, Canadians rated police most favourably at being approachable and easy to talk to, with more than seven in ten indicating that their local police were doing a good job. 

Women more likely to perceive police as doing a good job

Some of the same factors associated with greater confidence in public institutions were also associated with perceptions of police performance. For example, just as women were generally more confident in institutions than men, they also rated the police more favorably in nearly all categories (Table 7). The sole exception was ensuring safety of citizens, where men and women were equally likely to say their local police were doing a good job.

As with overall confidence in institutions, the belief that police are doing a good job generally increases with age, and the highest proportion who believe their local police are doing a good job is found among Canadians 75 years of age and older in all six categories.

Overall, visible minorities rate police performance lower than non-visible minorities

Previous research has noted a distinction between questions relating to the operational aspects of policing, as compared to questions on interpersonal relationships between the police and the public (Sprott & Doob 2014). Operational aspects refer generally to the duties of police to enforce laws, maintain safety, and respond to crime, while the interpersonal measures are related to the informal social control and general value system upheld by police (Cao 2014; Jackson & Bradford 2010).

Of the questions primarily related to the ability of police to perform their duties, there was no clear pattern among visible minorities. For instance, visible minorities rated police higher than non-visible minorities on promptly responding to calls but lower at providing information on crime prevention (Table 7). In contrast, the elements of policing involving interpersonal relationships – being approachable and easy to talk to and treating people fairly – were rated lower by visible minorities than by non-visible minorities.

Aboriginal people rate police lower than non-Aboriginal people

Aboriginal people rated police lower than non-Aboriginal people for each of the six police performance measures (Table 7).  The largest differences between Aboriginal people and non-Aboriginal people were found in the perceptions of police’s ability to promptly respond to calls (69% compared to 52%) and to enforce the laws (65% compared to 51%). While the extent of the difference was smaller, Aboriginal people were also less likely to believe their local police were doing a good job at the interpersonal measures compared to non-Aboriginal people. 

Contact with police associated with lower rating of police performance

Police, due to the nature of their work, are the most visible element of the criminal justice system, and as a result, the public is more likely to come into contact with police than other criminal justice professionals (Roberts 2007; Skogan 2006). In 2014, 31% of Canadians reported coming into contact with police in the 12 months prior to completing the survey. In contrast, about one in five (20%) reported ever having contact with Canadian criminal courts. Canadians who had contact with police in the past twelve months rated police less favourably in each of the six specific performance measures (Table 8, Chart 6). 

Previous research has suggested that contact with police is often related to a negative perception of police (Bradford et al. 2009; Skogan 2006).^{Note 4} The 2014 GSS largely confirms these earlier findings. While overall, contact with police is related to more negative perceptions of police performance, some types of contact had more of an impact than others.^{Note 5}

Most notably and perhaps unsurprisingly, Canadians who had been arrested had more negative evaluations of police performance, especially when it came to the interpersonal measures of being approachable and easy to talk to (40% compared to 73% of Canadians who were not arrested) and treating people fairly (34% compared to 68%).

Along the same lines, Canadians who came into contact with police due to their own emotional, mental health, or alcohol or drug use problems were less likely than those who did not have contact with police for these reasons to believe their local police were doing a good job being approachable (51% compared to 73%) or treating people fairly (45% compared to 68%).   

On the other hand, other forms of contact with police were either more neutral or favorable. For example, ratings of police did not differ between Canadians who attended a police public information session and those who did not, with the exception of a more positive perception of the police’s ability to provide information on crime prevention (68% compared to 61%). 

Canadians who are satisfied with their personal safety from crime rate police higher

Levels of crime are influenced by a number of factors external to the police, and while law enforcement is a central component of the duty of police, it is just one of many tasks they perform on a daily basis (Boyce 2015; Hutchins 2015). There are many factors outside of police work which can impact the level of crime, such as neighbourhood characteristics (Livingston et al. 2014; Charron 2011; Savoie 2008), age demographics (Carrington 2001), or economic conditions (Andresen 2012; Phillips & Land 2012). That said, Canadians’ perceptions and experiences of crime and criminal victimization have an impact on their perceptions of police performance.

Canadians who report a high level of satisfaction with their personal safety from crime rate police performance – in particular, operational measures – higher in all categories compared to those who are less satisfied (Table 8). More than three-quarters of those who were very satisfied believed police are doing a good job enforcing the laws (75%), promptly responding to calls (77%), and ensuring the safety of citizens (80%), well above the proportion of those who were very dissatisfied with their safety (28%, 35%, and 46%, respectively).

Along the same lines, there was an inverse relationship between the perception of neighbourhood crime compared to other neighbourhoods, and the perception of police performance. Canadians who believed crime in their neighbourhood was higher were more likely to give a lower rating of police performance, while the opposite was true for those who believed their neighbourhood had a lower crime rate. Similarly, people who believed crime in their neighbourhood stayed the same or decreased in the last five years were more likely to believe the police were doing a good job compared to those who believed neighbourhood crime had increased.

Also related to perceptions of neighbourhood crime, Canadians who perceived one or more indicators of disorder^{Note 6} to be a big problem in their neighbourhood had less favourable ratings of police performance. In particular, residents who perceived one or more big problems in their neighbourhood were less likely than those who did not perceive any problems to believe police were doing a good job at ensuring the safety of citizens (47% compared to 79%) and enforcing the laws (41% compared to 73%).

Victims of crime rate all aspects of police performance lower than non-victims

While perceptions of personal safety and neighbourhood crime can influence perceptions of police, direct experience as a victim of crime also has an impact. Canadians who were victims of crime in the 12 months preceding the GSS on Victimization held less favourable views of their local police for each of the six measures. While victims did not necessarily come into contact with police as a result of their victimization, positive perception of police performance decreased steadily with subsequent victimizations (Chart 7, Table 8). This was the case for both self-reported violent and self-reported household victimization.

Victims who reported incident to police rate police performance higher

Research suggests that confidence in police can be related to willingness to report criminal incidents, both as victims and as witnesses (Sindall et al. 2012).  While victims of crime, as a whole, rated police performance lower than those who were not victims, victims who reported the incident to police had a more favourable evaluation of police performance than those who did not.

Victims who reported the incident to police were more likely to believe police were doing a good job at the interpersonal measures compared to those who did not report the incident. More specifically, victims of crime who reported the incident to police were more likely than those who did not report the incident to state that local police were doing a good job being approachable (64% versus 54%) and treating people fairly (58% compared to 46%).

Not only were victims who reported the incident more likely to favorably assess police on an interpersonal level, they were more likely to believe they were doing a good job enforcing the laws (50% compared to 43%) and providing information on crime prevention (51% compared to 44%).

Experiences of discrimination related to less favourable perceptions of police

In 2014, about 4 million Canadians, or 13% of those aged 15 and over, reported that they were victims of discrimination in the past five years. Of these, about 330,000 (8%) perceived that they were discriminated against by police.^{Note 7} It has been argued that experiences of discrimination by police may undermine both public confidence in police as a legitimate and effective institution, as well as lessen the more general trust in individual police officers (Cao 2014).

Canadians who believed that they were discriminated against by police rated police performance considerably lower than Canadians who perceived discrimination in other situations or Canadians who did not experience discrimination (Chart 8). In particular, perceptions of police performance on the interpersonal level were much less favourable among those who perceived discrimination by police. The proportion of Canadians who believed police were doing a good job treating people fairly was 51 percentage points lower for those who perceived discrimination by police compared to those who did not experience discrimination. Similarly, 30% of those who perceived police discrimination believed that police were doing a good job being approachable and easy to talk to, 45 percentage points lower than those who were not discriminated against in any situation.

Police performance generally rated lower in the West

Views on police performance vary across Canada. Generally, perceptions of police performance were lower in the West, while perceptions were more mixed in the remaining provinces. In particular, residents of the Prairie provinces and British Columbia were less likely to state their local police were doing a good job in five of the six measures of police performance. Only the perceptions of police’s ability to be approachable and easy to talk to were similar to the provincial average. Previous research has shown that the overall prevalence and severity of police-reported crime and the rate of self-reported victimization are higher in the West (Boyce 2015; Perreault 2015).

Residents of all four Atlantic provinces more often believed that their local police were doing a good job at being approachable and easy to talk to. However, Canadians in Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia were less likely to state that police were doing a good job at the operational components of policing, notably ensuring the safety of citizens, promptly responding to calls, and enforcing the laws (Table 9).

While residents of Quebec were less likely to believe police were doing a good job being approachable and easy to talk to than the other provinces, they were more likely to state that their local police were doing a good job in each of the remaining five areas (Table 9).

Residents of Ottawa rate all measures of police performance higher than average

Among the CMAs, residents of Ottawa were more likely to state their local police were doing a good job for each of the six categories, ranging from providing information on crime prevention (6 percentage points higher than the CMA average) to promptly responding to calls (11 percentage points higher) (Table 10).

Residents of Winnipeg and Vancouver were least favourable in their evaluations of local police (Table 10). In each of the six components of police performance, residents in Winnipeg were less likely to state local police were doing a good job, in particular at enforcing the laws and promptly responding to calls (12 and 19 percentage points below average, respectively). While the proportion of residents stating police were doing a good job was lower for five of six categories in Vancouver, the relative difference was smaller, with the largest differences noted for police’s ability to enforce the laws and provide information on crime prevention (each 6 percentage points below average).

Factors associated with perception of police performance

Additional regression models were constructed to identify the socio-demographic and economic characteristics that remained significant predictors of perceptions of police performance when other factors were held constant (Table 11).  

Once other factors are controlled for, three factors remained significant for each of the six measures of police performance. Canadians 65 years and over and those who immigrated to Canada since 2000 were more likely to have positive perceptions. Those who were a victim of crime in the past 12 months were more likely to have negative perceptions. In particular, the largest differences in the probabilities between victims and non-victims were noted for perception of police ability to ensure the safety of citizens (0.60 compared to 0.74) and enforcing the laws (0.55 compared to 0.68).

Other factors, while not being significant for each measure, remained significant predictors for some measures of police performance. Sex, marital status, income, education, visible minority status, and contact with police each remained a significant predictor of perception of police performance for at least one measure. In some cases, the influence of certain variables had opposite effects depending on the measure. For instance, all else being equal, having a university degree was associated with a higher probability of believing police were doing a good job enforcing the laws, but a lower probability of believing police were doing a good job treating people fairly and providing information on crime prevention.

Unlike the regression model for public institutions in general, Aboriginal identity continued to be associated with perception of police performance after controlling for other factors. Non-Aboriginal people had higher probabilities of a positive perception of police’s ability to be approachable and easy to talk to, promptly respond to calls, treat people fairly, and enforce the laws.

Summary

The majority of Canadians aged 15 and over had a great deal or some confidence in police, the school system, banks, and the justice system and courts. In contrast, fewer than half of Canadians had confidence in the media, Federal Parliament, and major corporations.

Several demographic and socio-economic characteristics were associated with confidence in institutions. With the exception of media, women reported more confidence in government and institutions than men. While Canadians aged 15 to 24 were most likely to state they had confidence in Federal Parliament, a greater proportion of older Canadians had confidence in each of the other institutions. Generally, visible minorities and immigrants were more likely to have confidence in institutions.

The majority of Canadians believe the police are doing a good job at each of six specific performance measures. Overall, the proportion of Canadians believing their local police are doing a good job has increased since 2004.

Self-reported victimization is associated with lower ratings of police performance, with Canadians who reported being the victim of a crime in the past 12 months rating police lower than those who did not. In addition, the proportion of Canadians who stated police were doing a good job at each of the six measures decreased with each additional reported victimization.

Data sources

This report is based on data from the 2013 and 2014 General Social Survey. The target population consisted of persons aged 15 and older living in Canada’s 10 provinces, excluding people living full-time in institutions. The number of respondents was 27,695 in 2013 and 33,127 in 2014.

For more information on the data sources, please consult the following documents:

• 2014 GSS
• 2013 GSS
• 2009 GSS
• 2004 GSS

In this report, missing responses have been excluded from the denominator. For this reason, some results may differ slightly from those presented in other reports.

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