Victimization of men and boys in Canada, 2021

In recent years, there have been several calls to action to address and prevent violence against women, with the acknowledgement that women experience certain forms of violence, within particular relationships, disproportionately. This has resulted in the recognition of violence against women as a public health concern requiring immediate attention. The Canadian Centre for Justice and Community Safety Statistics has released many gender-based violence reports which highlight the victimization of women and girls and, while corresponding data for men and boys is shown comparatively, they have typically not been the focus of analysis. As a result, there is a gap in understanding the trends and characteristics associated with violence against men and boys in Canada and internationally. This gap is important to fill considering that police-reported data in Canada have consistently shown similarity in violent victimization rates between men and women (Allen & McCarthy, 2018; Conroy, 2018; Moreau,2022), yet the circumstances and risk factors surrounding such victimization often differ.

For example, prior research has shown that, compared to women, violence against men often occurs between non-intimates—typically strangers or acquaintances—is more likely to have a weapon present and often involves quite different, sometimes more severe forms of victimization (e.g., violations causing death, robbery, aggravated assault) (Allen & McCarthy, 2018; Conroy, 2018; Cotter & Savage, 2019; Lauritsen & Carbone-Lopez, 2011; Statistics Canada, 2022a; Warnken & Lauritsen, 2019). Moreover, violence can affect the well-being—both short- and long-term—of men, women and gender-diverse individuals personally, in their relationships with others and with the community (Coker et al., 2002; Mercy et al., 2017). Consequences of victimization include, but are not limited to, physical injury and mental health problems, increased substance use, economic losses, the development of infectious and non-communicable diseases as well as increased risk of future violence (Mercy et al., 2017; UNODC, 2019a).

Using police-reported data from the Incident-based Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Survey and the Homicide Survey, and self-reported data from the General Social Survey on Canadians’ Safety (Victimization), this Juristat explores trends and characteristics of violence against men and boys in Canada. While some gender comparisons are drawn, the primary objective is to spotlight male victimization in Canada by examining police-reported and self-reported data.

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Section 1: Police-reported victimization of men and boys

This section draws from police-reported data, specifically the Incident-based Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Survey, to present information on the characteristics and trends associated with the victimization of men and boys in Canada. All self-reported information related to men’s experiences with violent victimization are limited to text boxes to clearly distinguish data sources.

Rate of police-reported violence against men and boys increases until the 25-to-29-year age group before declining

In 2021, there were 192,413 male victims of police-reported violent crime in Canada,^Note  representing a rate of 1,015 victims per 100,000 male population and accounting for just under half (46%) of all victims of violent crime reported to police. Overall, the highest rate of violent victimization was found among men aged 25 to 34 (1,681), followed closely by those aged 18 to 24 (1,660). These findings contrast with rates documented among women and girls, where the highest rate of police-reported violence was among girls aged 12 to 17 (2,574).

Taking a closer look at age, the rate of violent victimization steadily increased for boys and men up to the 25-to-29-year age group, where the rate peaked at 1,741 victims per 100,000 men (Chart 1). In general, the rate of victimization then began to decline with increasing age. On the other hand, the victimization rate among girls and women peaked within the 15-to-19-year age group (2,633). The rate of violent victimization of girls and women exceeded what was documented among similarly aged boys and men until the 50-to-54-year age group at which point the victimization rate was higher for men than women, until age 80 to 84.

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Much of the gender gap in the rate of victimization, however, was driven by sexual assault offences. Research has shown that women and girls comprise the majority of sexual assault victims (Allen & McCarthy, 2018; Conroy, 2018; Cotter, 2021a; Cotter & Savage, 2019), whereas physical assault offences are common among men and boys. As such, when looking at victimization rates by offence type, a different pattern emerges. Specifically, rates of physical assault offences are higher for boys than girls up to the 15-to-19-year age group, at which time victimization rates among females exceed males up to and including the 40-to-44-year age group (Chart 2).  

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Higher rates of physical assault offences among men and boys 

In 2021, men and boys experienced high rates of physical assault offences (708 per 100,000 male population) relative to all other violent offences (Table 1). Specifically, police-reported data revealed assault level 1 as the most common violation (433), followed by assault level 2 (207).^Note 

While the overall rate of police-reported victimization was higher among women and girls compared to men and boys (1,190 versus 1,015 per 100,000 population), higher rates of more severe forms of victimization, excluding sexual assault, were seen among men and boys. For example, and lending support to prior research highlighting increased violence severity among males (Conroy, 2018; Felson, 2002), men and boys were victims of homicide, other violations causing death and attempted murder at a rate three times greater than women and girls (6 versus 2). Similarly, for men and boys, higher rates were documented for assault level 2 (207), robbery (58), assault level 3 (14) and extortion (14) than what was the case for women and girls (155, 25, 6 and 7, respectively).

Women and girls, on the other hand, experienced higher rates of assault level 1 (508 per 100,000 population), sexual offences (220), criminal harassment (65), and indecent or harassing communications (31) compared to men and boys (433, 31, 21 and 13, respectively). Notwithstanding similar rates of police-reported violence across genders in aggregate form for physical assault offences and other offences involving violence or the threat of violence, with the exception of sexual offences, it is important to note that men and women have different experiences with certain types of violent offences in Canada.

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Rates of police-reported violent crime against men and boys increasing since 2016

Between 2011 and 2021, according to UCR data, the rate of victimization against men and boys declined by about 6%, largely due to declines in the victimization of boys aged 12 to 17 and young men aged 18 to 24 (-28% and -26%, respectively) (Table 2).^Note  Of note, the rate of victimization against men aged 45 and older increased by 16% over the same period whereas minor rate changes were documented among the other age categories.

However, since 2016, the rate of male victimization increased 12%, with increases observed for every age group with the exception of men aged 18 to 24, where there was a slight decline (-1.3%). The largest increase was documented against men aged 45 and older (+22%). Men aged 45 and older were also the only age group with a higher rate of victimization in 2021 compared to similarly aged women (659 versus 516 per 100,000 population).

Rate of police-reported violence against men and boys highest in the territories and the Prairie Provinces

In 2021, similar to patterns documented in previous years (Allen & McCarthy, 2018; Conroy, 2021b; Conroy, 2018; Perreault & Simpson, 2016), the highest rate of victimization against men and boys was reported by police in the Northwest Territories (7,926 per 100,000 male population), followed by Nunavut (7,003) and Yukon (3,276) (Table 3). Aligned with age patterns observed in Canada overall, the highest rate of violence in each of the territories was documented against men aged 25 to 34 years. That said, the relatively small population counts in the territories, alongside a comparatively younger median age of inhabitants, produces higher and more unstable rates that should be interpreted cautiously. Of note, these areas of the country are regions where violent crime is high overall (Moreau, 2022).

In the provinces, the rate of violence against men and boys was highest in Manitoba (1,805 per 100,000 male population), followed by Saskatchewan (1,666). Some provincial variation exists, however, when examining rates among younger males. For boys aged 11 and younger, the highest rate of violence was in Newfoundland and Labrador (727 per 100,000 boys) and for those aged 12 to 17, police in New Brunswick reported the highest rate (2,553). For all other age groups, the highest rates of violent victimization were reported in Manitoba.  

Compared to urban areas, higher rate of violence against men and boys in most rural areas

In 2021, the overall rate of police-reported violence against men and boys was 1.5 times higher in rural compared to urban areas (1,438 versus 936 per 100,000 male population).^Note  Indeed, the rate of victimization against men and boys was higher in almost all provincial rural areas, with the exception of Prince Edward Island, than what was documented in provincial urban areas.^Note 

The high rates of rural violence, however, were due in large part to victimization reported to police in the rural North (Table 3).^Note  Specifically, in 2021, the rate of violent victimization against men and boys was 3,519 per 100,000 population in the rural North, three times higher than the rate in the rural South (1,034) and nearly four times higher than in urban areas (936). Among the provinces, the largest differences were noted in Saskatchewan, where the rate of victimization was seven times higher in the rural North versus the rural South (10,952 versus 1,528) and almost nine times higher than in urban areas (1,242). Similarly, in Manitoba, the rate of violence against men and boys was about six times higher in the rural North compared to the rural South (7,784 versus 1,340) and five times higher than what was documented in urban areas (1,434).

It follows that the rate of violence against men and boys was lower in census metropolitan areas (CMAs)^Note  compared to non-CMAs (871 versus 1,379) (Table 4). That said, rates varied widely among the CMAs. The highest rates of victimization among men and boys were found in Thunder Bay (1,737),^Note  followed by Lethbridge (1,633) and Moncton (1,575). To contrast, the lowest rates of violence were documented in Guelph (454), followed by Barrie (550) and Ottawa (624).^Note 

Most young boys victimized by a family member, older boys and men by a casual acquaintance or stranger

In 2021, of those whose violent victimization was reported to police, eight in ten (79%) men and boys were victimized by someone outside their family compared to about six in ten (61%) women and girls (Chart 3). The largest proportion of males who were victimized by a family member were aged 11 and younger (59%), of whom, three quarters (75%) were victimized by a parent.^Note  However, with increasing age, and as individuals’ social networks begin to extend beyond family, proportionately more males were victimized by someone outside of their family. This finding reflects a longstanding trend, even throughout the pandemic whereby lockdown restrictions meant people spent an increased amount of time in the home, oftentimes with family. 

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Boys aged 12 to 17 were most commonly victimized by a casual acquaintance (39%), followed by a stranger (28%). From age 18 onwards, the largest proportion of men within each age group were victimized by a stranger. Specifically, about four in ten (42%) men aged 18 to 24 were victimized by a stranger, followed by those aged 25 to 34 (37%). Equal proportions of men aged 35 to 44 (33%) and 45 and older (33%) were victimized by a stranger.

In contrast, most women and girls experienced victimization by a family member or intimate partner with proportions ranging from 41% to 64% depending on the age group. 

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Young boys most commonly experience victimization on private property, proportions decrease with age

In 2021, according to UCR data, more than two-thirds (68%) of all boys aged 11 and younger were victimized on private property – including houses, dwelling units and other structures located on private property (Table 5). However, as age increases, proportionately fewer males were victimized at such locations. Rather, sizeable proportions of men experienced violence in outdoor and commercial locations, especially those aged 18 to 24 (49%). In contrast, the largest proportion of females, regardless of age, were victimized on private property. These findings align with previous research using self-reported data whereby men were more likely than women to be victimized outside the home (Cotter & Savage, 2019; Perreault, 2020). 

It may be that the location of victimization aligns with the relationships shared between victims and accused alongside lifestyle and leisure activities. For instance, the largest proportion of men aged 18 to 24 were victimized by a stranger. Of these stranger victimizations, 75% were victimized at a school, outdoor or commercial location.^Note  This contrasts with men who were victimized by a casual acquaintance, whereby more than half (53%) of those aged 18 to 24 were victimized on private property.

In support of the above, the majority (59%) of men aged 18 to 24 were victimized in the evening and nighttime hours (Table 5). Research has shown a correlation between violent victimization and nighttime activities, especially among males, where nighttime activities help to explain the relationship between age and victimization (Bunch et al., 2015). Specifically, younger people may participate in nighttime activities—such as going to work, school, clubs, bars or restaurants—at a greater frequency than their older counterparts, thus increasing the risk of victimization (Cotter, 2021a). In contrast, the largest proportion of boys aged 11 and younger, and those aged 12 to 17, were victimized in the morning and afternoon (64% and 57%, respectively).

Four in ten males sustained a physical injury as a result of the violent victimization

In 2021, according to UCR data, physical force was used against half (51%) of all male victims (Table 5). An additional 30% of males experienced victimization where a weapon was present, double what was documented among female victims (15%). Broken down by age, the presence of a weapon was least common among boys aged 11 and younger (20%) and most commonly reported among male victims aged 18 to 24 (35%), followed closely by those aged 25 to 34 (33%) and men aged 35 to 44 (32%).

Four in ten (40%) males sustained a physical injury as a result of the violent victimization, compared with 37% of females. Looking at variation across age groups, injury was least common among boys aged 11 and younger (35%) and was most common among men aged 25 to 34 (43%). Of all men and boys who sustained an injury, nine in ten (91%) had a minor injury and the remaining 9% had a major injury.

Charges laid or recommended against two-thirds of persons accused of victimizing men and boys

According to UCR data, in 2021, four in ten (43%) incidents of violent victimization against male victims were not cleared—meaning the incident was still under investigation, there was insufficient evidence to proceed or an accused had not been identified—compared to over one-third (37%) of incidents involving female victims.^Note  This difference could be related to incident characteristics, as males were more often victimized by a stranger, potentially increasing the difficulty in identifying and subsequently laying charges against an accused. For instance, one-third (34%) of all male victims were victimized by a stranger and, of incidents involving stranger victimization, more than half (56%) were not cleared.

That said, there were 74,648 police-reported incidents of violence against men and boys in which there was a single victim and single accused person.^Note  Of these incidents, and aligned with patterns noted above, about half involved the victimization of men and boys by an acquaintance (24%) or a stranger (24%). Women and girls, on the other hand, were most commonly victimized by an intimate partner or family member (70%). 

Among persons accused of victimizing men and boys, two-thirds (66%) had charges laid or recommended against them. Charges were most common among persons accused of violence against men aged 25 to 34 (71%) and 35 to 44 (70%). Charges were least common among persons accused of victimizing male youth aged 12 to 17 (50%).

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Section 2: Homicide of men and boys

Increase in homicide rate involving male victims

In 2021, 586 men and boys were victims of homicide in Canada. The homicide rate among men and boys was 3.08 per 100,000 male population, almost unchanged from the previous year (3.04) but more than three times the homicide rate for women and girls (1.02) (Table 6). Broken down by age group, and consistent with prior trends, the highest homicide rate was documented among men aged 18 to 24 (6.72) (Chart 4). These findings are consistent with global trends showing that the male homicide rate in general is far higher than that of females and often peaks in young adulthood (UNODC, 2019b).

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Between 2011 and 2021, the homicide rate among men and boys has increased (+22%), driven largely by the homicide of men aged 25 and older (+32%). A similar pattern is evident when examining the change in rates since 2016. The homicide rate among men and boys as victims increased by 20%, with the most substantial increases documented among men aged 25 and older (+22%) and boys aged 17 and younger (+20%).

Males aged 12 and older most commonly killed by a non-family member

Aligned with global patterns (UNODC, 2019a), between 2011 and 2021, the large majority (87%) of homicide victims aged 11 and younger were killed by a family member (Table 7). From age 12 and onward, however, on average 83% of male homicide victims aged 12 to 17, 18 to 24 and 25 and older were killed by someone outside of their family, most commonly by a friend, stranger or acquaintance. More specifically, male youth victims aged 12 to 17 were most often killed by a friend (41%), followed by a stranger (20%) or an acquaintance (19%). A similar pattern was observed among men aged 18 to 24, albeit with slightly higher proportions (44%, 25% and 22%, respectively). Lastly, of male homicide victims aged 25 and older, the largest proportion was again killed by a friend (34%), followed by an acquaintance (25%) and a stranger (20%).

Four in ten male homicide victims died by shooting

Overall, between 2011 and 2021, shooting was the most common primary method used to cause the death of men and boys (40%), almost double what was documented for women and girls (22%) (Table 8). The method used to cause death among men and boys, however, varied by victim age. For instance, the largest proportion of boys aged 11 and younger died by beating (36%), whereas stabbing was the most common method used to kill male youth aged 12 to 17 (44%). For adult victims, shooting was the most common method of killing for male victims aged 18 to 24 and for those aged 25 and older (54% and 37%, respectively). Recent Canadian data illustrates the gendered nature of gang-related homicides and the predominance of firearms in carrying them out, which can help explain the high proportion of young men dying in firearm-related homicides (see Cotter, 2022; David & Jaffray, 2022).

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Summary

In 2021, there were 192,413 male victims of police-reported crime in Canada, representing a rate of 1,015 victims per 100,000 male population and accounting for just under half (46%) of all victims of violent crime. The rate of violent victimization increased steadily for boys and men, peaking between the ages of 25 and 29, before declining with increasing age.

While the overall rate of police-reported victimization was higher among women and girls compared to men and boys (1,190 versus 1,015 per 100,000 population), men and boys experienced higher rates of many more severe forms of victimization, such as homicide, other violations causing death and attempted murder, assault level 2, robbery, assault level 3 and extortion.

Consistent with previous Canadian trends, the highest rate of victimization against men and boys was reported by police in the territories, followed by Manitoba and Saskatchewan. For boys aged 11 and younger, however, the highest rate of violence was in Newfoundland and Labrador and for male youth aged 12 to 17, police in New Brunswick reported the highest rate.

In 2021, the overall rate of police-reported violence against men and boys was higher in rural compared to urban areas (1,438 versus 936 per 100,000 male population). The high rates of rural violence were due largely to victimization rates reported in the rural North, which were about three times higher than rates in the rural South.

With the exception of boys aged 11 and younger, the largest proportion of males were victimized by someone outside the family, oftentimes by a casual acquaintance or a stranger. Physical force was used against half (51%) of all male victims and an additional 30% experienced victimization with a weapon present, double what was documented among female victims (15%). Four in ten (40%) males sustained a physical injury as a result of the violent victimization.

In 2021, the homicide rate among men and boys was more than three times higher than the homicide rate for women and girls (3.08 versus 1.02 victims per 100,000 population). Between 2011 and 2021, the homicide rate among men and boys has increased (+22%), driven largely by the homicide of men aged 25 and older (+32%). From age 12 and onward, most male homicide victims were killed by someone outside of their family. 

Previously, police-reported data related to the violent victimization of men and boys were used as a point of comparison when examining violence against women and girls. While victimization rates are similar across genders overall, important differences—such as the type of victimization experienced, at what age and by whom—are often concealed. Highlighting such nuances is an important step towards ensuring gender equity when addressing violent victimization in Canada. 

Detailed data tables

Table 1 Victims of police-reported violent crime, by victim age group and gender, and type of violation, Canada, 2021

Table 2 Victims of police-reported violent crime, by victim age group and gender, and year, Canada, 2011 to 2021

Table 3 Rate of police-reported violent crime, by victim age group and gender, province or territory and urban or rural area, Canada, 2021

Table 4 Victims of police-reported violent crime, by victim age group and gender, and census metropolitan area, Canada, 2021

Table 5 Victims of police-reported violent crime, by victim age group and gender, and incident characteristic, Canada, 2021

Table 6 Victims of homicide, by victim age group and gender, and year, Canada, 2011 to 2021

Table 7 Victims of homicide, by victim age group and gender, and relationship of accused to victim, Canada, 2011 to 2021

Table 8 Victims of homicide, by victim age group and gender, and primary method to cause death, Canada, 2011 to 2021

Survey description

General Social Survey on Canadians’ Safety (Victimization)

This article uses data from the General Social Survey (GSS) on Canadians’ Safety (Victimization). In 2019, Statistics Canada conducted the GSS on Victimization for the seventh time. Previous cycles were conducted in 1988, 1993, 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014. The main objective of the GSS on Victimization is to better understand issues related to the safety and security of Canadians, including perceptions of crime and the justice system, experiences of intimate partner violence, and how safe people feel in their communities.

The target population was persons aged 15 and older living in the provinces and territories, except for those living full-time in institutions.

Data collection took place between April 2019 and March 2020. Responses were obtained by computer-assisted telephone interviews, in-person interviews (in the territories only) and, for the first time, the GSS on Victimization offered a self-administered internet collection option to survey respondents in the provinces and in the territorial capitals. Respondents were able to respond in the official language of their choice.

An individual aged 15 or older was selected within each sampled household to respond to the survey. An oversample of Indigenous people was added to the 2019 GSS on Victimization to allow for a more detailed analysis of individuals belonging to this population group. In 2019, the final sample size was 22,412 respondents.

In 2019, the overall response rate was 37.6%. Non-respondents included people who refused to participate, could not be reached, or could not speak English or French. Respondents in the sample were weighted so that their responses represent the non-institutionalized Canadian population aged 15 and older.

For the quality of estimates, the lower and upper bounds of the confidence intervals are presented in charts and tables. Confidence intervals should be interpreted as follows: if the survey were repeated many times, then 95% of the time (or 19 times out of 20), the confidence interval would cover the true population value.

Incident-based Uniform Crime Reporting Survey

The Incident-based Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Survey collects detailed information on criminal incidents that have come to the attention of police services in Canada. Information includes characteristics of victims, accused persons and incidents. In 2021, data from police services covered 99% of the population of Canada.

One incident can involve multiple offences. In order to ensure comparability, counts are presented based on the most serious offence related to the incident as determined by a standard classification rule used by all police services.

Victim age is calculated based on the end date of an incident, as reported by the police. Some victims experience violence over a period of time, sometimes years, all of which may be considered by the police to be part of one continuous incident. Information about the number and dates of individual incidents for these victims of continuous violence is not available. Excludes victims where age was greater than 110 due to possible instances of miscoding of unknown age within this age group.

The option for police to code victims as “gender diverse” in the UCR Survey was implemented in 2018. In the context of the UCR, “gender diverse” refers to a person who publicly expresses as neither exclusively male nor exclusively female. Given that small counts of victims identified as being gender diverse may exist, the UCR data available to the public has been recoded with these victims distributed in the “male” or “female” categories based on the regional distribution of victims’ gender. This recoding ensures the protection of confidentiality and privacy of victims.

Homicide Survey

The Homicide Survey collects detailed information on all homicide that has come to the attention of, and have been substantiated by, police services in Canada. Information includes characteristics of victims, accused persons and incidents. In 2019, the survey went through a comprehensive redesign in order to improve data quality and enhance relevance.

Prior to 2019, Homicide Survey data was presented by the sex of the victims. Sex and gender refer to two different concepts. Caution should be exercised when comparing counts for sex with those for gender. Given that small counts of victims and accused persons identified as “gender diverse” may exist, the aggregate Homicide Survey data available to the public has been recoded to assign these counts to either “male” or “female” in order to ensure the protection of confidentiality and privacy. Victims and accused persons identified as gender diverse have been distributed to either the male or female category based on the regional distribution of victims’ or accused persons’ gender.

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