Insights on Canadian Society
Use of official languages at home: An analysis based on the academic path of graduates in Canada

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Overview of the study

This study examines the language spoken at home based on the academic path and language composition of couples. In particular, the study deals with the adoption or retention of a minority official language in Canada—i.e., English in Quebec and French in the other provinces and territories—as the language spoken most often at home. The study is based on data from the linkage between the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) and the 2021 Census of Population, as well as information from the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials, and looks specifically at graduates who were 18 to 30 years of age in 2021. Since the language spoken at home is the language that is likely to be passed on to the next generation, the retention or adoption of minority languages at home is important for their preservation.

• In Quebec, the majority (95%) of graduates whose mother tongue was English attended at least one English-language or bilingual school during their studies, and nearly three-quarters (74%) attended a school where English was a language of instruction at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels.
• In Canada outside Quebec, 93% of graduates whose mother tongue was French attended at least one French-language or bilingual school during their studies. However, compared with English-mother-tongue graduates in Quebec, a smaller proportion (61%) of graduates attended schools, from elementary to postsecondary, where French was a language of instruction. A number of graduates (22%) also attended French-language elementary and secondary school, but did their postsecondary studies in English.
• Graduates in New Brunswick whose mother tongue was French (81%) were much more likely to have attended elementary, secondary and postsecondary schools where French was a language of instruction than those in the Western provinces and territories (40%).
• In Canada outside Quebec, the proportion of graduates with a French mother tongue with a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was also French (endogamous couple) was three times higher among graduates who had studied at a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution (66%) than among those who had studied only at an English-language postsecondary institution (22%).
• Graduates whose spouse’s or partner’s mother tongue was a minority language and who had attended a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution were more likely to speak the minority language at home after graduation than other graduates.

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Introduction

The continuum of education in the minority official language refers to the possibility for English-speaking people in Quebec and French-speaking people in Canada outside Quebec to do their entire education in their language, from elementary through to university. The development and preservation of educational institutions where instruction is offered in English in Quebec and in French in Canada outside Quebec are priorities for official language minority communities in Canada. In addition, Canada’s Action Plan for Official Languages 2023–2028 states that “educational institutions in official language minority communities, such as daycares, primary and secondary schools, and universities and colleges, are essential for linguistic and cultural transfer” between generations, in addition to contributing to training a bilingual, skilled workforce.

In childhood, as in adulthood, schools are places for consolidating language learning^Note  and learning new languages. They can also play a role in building identity.^Note  In Canada, the possibility of studying at minority language schools has been the subject of demands for decades. Since 1982, Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms has enshrined the right to education in French in Canada outside Quebec^Note  and to education in English in Quebec.^Note  However, Section 23 covers only elementary and secondary education, and offers no protection at the postsecondary level.

In 2021, for the very first time, information was collected in the Census of Population on the language of instruction at the elementary and secondary levels. These census results showed a strong relationship between elementary and secondary education in a minority language and English–French bilingualism in adulthood.^Note  Other studies have also shown a link between the language of instruction at college and university and the language of work after graduation.^Note  Furthermore, although the language of instruction at the elementary and secondary levels is less strongly associated with the language of work after graduation, studying in a given language at more than one level of education is associated with a higher probability of working in that language.^Note  Despite these new findings, the link between the language of instruction at the schools attended and other language characteristics of graduates, including the language spoken at home after graduation, remains a topic to explore^Note  and will therefore be the focus of this study.

The study is based on data from the linkage of administrative data from the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS)^Note  with data from the 2021 Census of Population. This method combines census data on elementary and secondary education with PSIS information on the postsecondary education of graduates. Using this dataset, the study examines the academic path—from elementary to postsecondary—of 1.5 million young graduates aged 18 to 30, by the language of instruction of the schools attended in Canada and the first language learned in childhood (mother tongue). The study then looks at the language composition of graduates’ couples, as well as its link with the language they speak most often at home after graduation.

More information on the target population of this study and the classification of schools by language of instruction can be found in the “Data sources, methods and definitions” box.

Levels of education and academic paths

This study examines studies at minority official language schools, i.e., French-language schools for residents of Canada outside Quebec, and English-language schools for residents of Quebec. The study looks at the official language of instruction of the schools attended, not the language of the programs taken by graduates. In this analysis, three levels of education are examined: elementary, secondary and postsecondary.

The first level of education, which is mandatory for children, is elementary^Note  school. A graduate is considered to have attended a minority language elementary school^Note  if they attended it for at least one year in Canada.

The second level of education is secondary school. A graduate is considered to have attended a minority language high school^Note  if they attended it for at least one year in Canada.

The third and final level of education is postsecondary. This includes studies at college and university. A graduate is considered to have done postsecondary studies at a minority language institution if they earned at least one academic credential from a college or university in Canada where the minority language can be the language of instruction or one of the languages of instruction (bilingual institutions).^Note  This includes graduates who attended a bilingual institution where the minority language was one of the languages of instruction, but who did not do a program in that language.

Figure 1 shows the different academic paths that postsecondary graduates may have taken during their studies.

The duration of each level of education can vary depending on the program of study, the school, or the school system of the province or territory. Graduates may also have attended minority language schools, bilingual schools and other types of schools for the same level of education.

Description of figure 1

This figure shows eight academic paths based on the language of instruction at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary schools attended. The following are possible paths that graduates tooks at institutions where the minority language is a language of instruction:

1. Elementary, secondary and postsecondary
2. Secondary and postsecondary
3. Elementary and postsecondary
4. Postsecondary only
5. Elementary and secondary
6. Secondary only
7. Elementary only
8. None

The proportion of graduates who had attended a school where the minority language was a language of instruction was higher at the postsecondary level, except among graduates in Canada outside Quebec with French as a mother tongue

In 2021, there were around 1.5 million postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 in Canada.^Note  Of these, 79,000 reported having learned a minority official language (i.e., English in Quebec and French in Canada outside Quebec) as their first language in childhood (mother tongue). In Quebec, there were 43,000 graduates whose mother tongue was English, representing 11% of all postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 in the province. In Canada outside Quebec, there were 36,000 graduates whose mother tongue was French, representing 3% of young postsecondary graduates outside Quebec.

In Quebec, as in the rest of Canada, the percentage of young postsecondary graduates who attended a school where the minority language was a language of instruction varied both by the graduates’ mother tongue and the level of education (elementary, secondary or postsecondary).

In Quebec, likelihood of going to a school that offered instruction in English increased with the level of education. For example, the proportion of graduates whose mother tongue was English and who attended a school where English was a language of instruction rose from 79% at the elementary and secondary levels to 93% at the postsecondary level (Chart 1). The same trends were observed among graduates whose mother tongue was French and those whose mother tongue was neither English nor French (non-official language). However, the difference between levels of education was greater among graduates with a non-official mother tongue, who were more than twice as likely to have attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution (56%) than an English-language high school (27%). One reason for this difference is that the eligibility rules for English-language elementary and secondary schools in Quebec are more restrictive.

In Canada outside Quebec, trends differed from those observed in Quebec for minority language graduates. Unlike the other groups, graduates whose mother tongue was French were less likely to have attended a French-language or bilingual institution at the postsecondary level (66%) than a French-language school at the elementary (90%) or secondary (84%) level. One reason for this is that the proximity of French-language or bilingual postsecondary institutions varies significantly from one region to another in Canada outside Quebec. For example, certain college or university programs are offered only by English-language institutions in some regions, provinces and territories.

Among graduates with a French mother tongue in Canada outside Quebec who earned an academic credential from a postsecondary institution where French is a language of instruction, the majority studied at a unilingual French-language institution (77%), while the remainder studied at a bilingual institution, where French and English were the two languages of instruction. However, at bilingual institutions, it is not possible to determine whether graduates studied in French. Nevertheless, another source of data show that the majority of minority language students who studied at a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution studied in the minority language. The box “Language of instruction at postsecondary institutions and language of study” provides more information on the connection between the language of instruction at postsecondary institutions and the language of the programs taken by graduates.

In Canada outside Quebec, the proportion of graduates whose mother tongue was English or a non-official language^Note  and who attended a school where French was a language of instruction was higher at the postsecondary level (11%) than at the elementary (3%) or secondary (2%) levels. This higher rate at the postsecondary level is because these graduates attended bilingual universities,^Note  where French and English are the two languages of instruction. Among graduates with English or a non-official language as their mother tongue who attended a bilingual institution, less than one-fifth (17%) could have a conversation in French in 2021, suggesting that most of them did not do a program in French at these institutions.

Data table for Chart 1

Data table for Chart 1 Table summary
The information is grouped by Level of education (appearing as row headers), Graduate’s mother tongue, Quebec, Canada outside Quebec, English, French, Non-official language, French and English or non-official language, calculated using percentage units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Level of education	Graduate’s mother tongue
	Quebec			Canada outside Quebec
	English	French	Non-official language	French	English or non-official language
	percentage
Note: Includes postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 who earned at least one academic credential from a public postsecondary institution in Canada between 2010 and 2020. Sources: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021; Postsecondary Student Information System, 2010 to 2020; Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials, 2024.
Elementary	79	6	28	90	3
Secondary	79	4	27	84	2
Postsecondary	93	12	56	66	11

Language of instruction at postsecondary institutions and language of study

In Canada, many colleges and universities offer programs in only one official language—either English or French—while other institutions are bilingual, offering programs in both official languages. In some regions, bilingual institutions are the only ones that offer postsecondary programs in the minority official language.

PSIS data cannot be used to determine the language of the programs taken by graduates. However, results from the 2022 Survey on the Official Language Minority Population (SOLMP) shed light on the connection between the language of instruction at postsecondary institutions and the language of the programs taken by students. Most adults in the official language minority population^Note  who were studying at a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution in the 2021/2022 academic year studied primarily in the minority language.

In Quebec, 97% of English-speaking adults who attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution studied primarily in English, or as often in English as in French. In Canada outside Quebec, 85% of French-speaking adults who attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution studied primarily in French, alone or in English as well. In particular, 70%^Note  of French-speaking adults who attended a bilingual postsecondary institution studied primarily in French, or as often in French as in English.

Almost all graduates with a minority official language as their mother tongue attended at least one school during their studies where the minority language was a language of instruction

The vast majority of graduates with a minority official language as their mother tongue attended a minority language or bilingual school during their studies. For example, 95% of graduates in Quebec whose mother tongue was English and 93% of graduates in Canada outside Quebec whose mother tongue was French attended at least one school during their studies where the minority language was a language of instruction (Table 1).

In Quebec, almost three-quarters (74%) of graduates whose mother tongue was English attended a school at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary level where English was a language of instruction. By comparison, in Canada outside Quebec, a smaller percentage of graduates whose mother tongue was French (61%) attended schools at the elementary to postsecondary level where French was a language of instruction. Nevertheless, just over one-fifth (22%) of graduates in Canada outside Quebec whose mother tongue was French attended French-language schools at the elementary and secondary levels, although they continued their postsecondary studies at one or more English-language schools.

In Quebec, graduates whose mother tongue was a non-official language were more likely to attend an English-language or bilingual institution at the postsecondary level only. This was the case for 30% of graduates whose mother tongue was a non-official language, compared with 9% of graduates with a French mother tongue and 12% of graduates with an English mother tongue.

Some groups of graduates whose mother tongue was a non-official language were more likely than the average to have attended schools at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary level where the minority language was a language of instruction. For example, this was true for graduates whose mother tongue was Greek (50%), Tamil (53%) and Italian (77%) in Quebec, and whose mother tongue was Arabic (5%) in Canada outside Quebec.

In Canada outside Quebec, attending French-language or bilingual schools as part of a graduate’s academic path varies according to place of residence and place of birth

Graduates from certain regions of Canada were more likely to have attended a school where the minority official language was a language of instruction, particularly graduates in regions where the demographic weight of the minority population is above average. This is the case in New Brunswick, where almost all graduates with a French mother tongue attended at least one French-language or bilingual school during their studies (98%). Furthermore, over 81% of graduates whose mother tongue was French attended a school at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels where French was a language of instruction, which is more than double what was observed in the Western provinces and territories (40%).^Note 

The place of residence in 2021, which this study is based on, may not correspond to the place where the studies were completed. Some graduates may have changed their province or territory of residence before or during their studies, while others may have moved after completing their postsecondary studies, e.g., for work.^Note  Academic paths also varied according to graduates’ place of birth.^Note  For example, in Canada outside Quebec, graduates with a French mother tongue who were born abroad and arrived in Canada before the age of 11 were half as likely (31%) to have attended a school at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels where French was a language of instruction than graduates born in Quebec (63%) or Canada outside Quebec (62%).

Moreover, in the western provinces and territories, and in the Atlantic provinces excluding New Brunswick, Quebec-born graduates with a French mother tongue were much more likely (62% and 72%, respectively) to have attended schools at the elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels where French was a language of instruction than graduates born in Canada outside Quebec (26% and 31%, respectively). Such differences were not observed in New Brunswick or Ontario.

Graduates who studied at a minority language or bilingual school are more likely than other graduates to have a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was a minority language

Young adults go through many transitions and changes in their personal and family circumstances before, during and after their postsecondary studies. For example, many young adults leave home in their twenties to live on their own or move in with other people, such as a spouse or partner.^Note  In 2021, just over one-third (35%) of postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 in Canada lived with their spouse or partner.

The language profile of spouses or partners varied by the graduates’ academic path. Graduates who went to a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution were more likely to have a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was a minority language than graduates who did not attend this type of school. This was true for graduates whose mother tongue was English, French or a non-official language, both in Quebec and Canada outside Quebec. However, this was especially pronounced among graduates whose mother tongue was a minority official language.

In Quebec, 61% of graduates with an English mother tongue who went to an English-language or bilingual postsecondary school had a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was English (endogamous couple) (Chart 2). In comparison, this proportion was 21% among those who did their postsecondary studies only at French-language institutions. In contrast, 74% of graduates whose mother tongue was English and who did their postsecondary studies at one or more French-language institution had a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was French (exogamous couple).

In addition, most graduates in Quebec whose mother tongue was French were in an endogamous couple, regardless of whether they had attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution (81%) or completed all their postsecondary studies at French-language institutions (95%).

Data table for Chart 2

Data table for Chart 2 Table summary
The information is grouped by Spouse’s or partner's mother tongue (appearing as row headers), Graduate’s mother tongue, English, French, Non-official language, Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution and Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, calculated using percentage units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Spouse’s or partner's mother tongue	Graduate’s mother tongue
	English		French		Non-official language
	Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Attended an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Did not attend an English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution
	percentage
Notes: When the data are added or combined, the total value may not correspond to the individual values as totals and subtotals are rounded separately. Includes postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 who earned at least one academic credential from a public postsecondary institution in Canada between 2010 and 2020, and excludes spouses and partners with multiples mother tongues. Sources: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021; Postsecondary Student Information System, 2010 to 2020; Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials, 2024.
English	61	21	11	2	19	3
French	29	74	81	95	22	45
Non-official language	10	5	7	3	59	52

In Canada outside Quebec, two-thirds (66%) of graduates whose mother tongue was French were in an endogamous couple after graduation, when they had attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution (Chart 3). This proportion was 22% among those who did not do postsecondary studies in French. Differences in the rate of linguistic endogamy among graduates with a French mother tongue based on academic path were observed in the Atlantic provinces (86% among graduates who attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution and 36% among those who did not), Ontario (57% and 22%) and in the Western provinces and the territories (42% and 13%).

Data table for Chart 3

Data table for Chart 3 Table summary
The information is grouped by Spouse’s or partner's mother tongue (appearing as row headers), Graduate’s mother tongue, French, English or non-official language, Attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Did not attend a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, Attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution and Did not attend a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution, calculated using percentage units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Spouse’s or partner's mother tongue	Graduate’s mother tongue
	French		English or non-official language
	Attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Did not attend a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Attended a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution	Did not attend a French-language or bilingual postsecondary institution
	percentage
Notes: When the data are added or combined, the total value may not correspond to the individual values as totals and subtotals are rounded separately. Includes postsecondary graduates aged 18 to 30 who earned at least one academic credential from a public postsecondary institution in Canada between 2010 and 2020, and excludes spouses and partners with multiple mother tongues. Sources: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021; Postsecondary Student Information System, 2010 to 2020; Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials, 2024.
French	66	22	3	2
English or non-official language	34	78	97	98

The language spoken by graduates at home after graduation varies according to their spouse’s or partner’s mother tongue

The language of a person’s spouse or partner is a determining factor in starting or continuing to use a minority language as the home language.^Note  What’s more, among couples with children, the language spoken at home by the parents will generally be the language passed on to the next generation.^Note 

Graduates with a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was a minority language are more likely to speak the minority language most often at home than graduates whose spouse has another mother tongue. This is especially true among graduates who studied at a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution.

In Quebec, 89% of graduates with an English mother tongue who had a spouse or partner spoke English most often at home (Table 2). This proportion was higher among graduates who had a spouse or partner with an English mother tongue (98%) than among those who had a spouse or partner with a French mother tongue (70%). However, among graduates who were in an endogamous couple, this proportion was lower (60%) when the graduates had studied only at French-language or bilingual postsecondary institutions.

There are similar trends in Canada outside Quebec. Graduates who were in an endogamous couple (88%) were much more likely than graduates who were in an exogamous couple (19%) to speak French most often at home (Table 3), especially when the graduates had done their postsecondary studies at a French-language or bilingual institution (92%).

In short, the spouse’s mother tongue and having attended a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution were both strongly correlated with the language spoken most often at home after graduation. Most graduates whose mother tongue was a minority language and who were using their mother tongue as the language spoken most often at home after graduation were in an endogamous couple and had studied at a minority language or bilingual postsecondary institution (77% in Canada outside Quebec and 62% in Quebec). Among the other groups of graduates, those who adopted the minority language as the language spoken most often at home had more diverse academic paths.

While some changes in the language spoken at home can occur in adulthood, most take place in childhood.^Note  Therefore, a graduate’s academic path or having a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was a minority language is not necessarily the reason for a change in the language spoken at home, but rather perhaps a reflection of the language changes that occurred earlier in graduates’ lives—changes that then guided the education choices and choice of spouse or partner.

Conclusion

This study examines the language spoken at home based on the academic path and selected characteristics of young postsecondary graduates after graduation. It specifically looks at enrolment in English-language or bilingual schools in Quebec and in French-language or bilingual schools in Canada outside Quebec among postsecondary graduates who were aged 18 to 30 in 2021.

The proportion of graduates who attended minority language or bilingual schools during their studies varied by level of education, mother tongue, and province of residence. Graduates whose mother tongue was a minority official language were more likely to have attended a school where the minority language was a language of instruction.

Graduates in Canada outside Quebec whose mother tongue was French were less likely to go to schools at the postsecondary level where French was a language of instruction than at elementary and secondary levels. The availability of postsecondary programs in French nearby is one reason for this difference. In some parts of Canada outside Quebec, some programs are offered only by English-language institutions.

Previous studies have shown that there are links between the language of instruction, bilingualism and the language of work. This study shows an association between going to minority language or bilingual schools and the use of minority official languages at home. Graduates who did postsecondary studies at a minority language or bilingual institution were more likely than those who did not to have a spouse or partner whose mother tongue was a minority language and to speak the minority language most often at home after graduation.

There are a number of reasons why an individual may want to study at a minority language school. In addition to the individual’s personal reasons^Note  or language preferences (and those of their parents for the choice of schools as of the elementary level^Note ), there are also eligibility criteria, proximity to schools,^Note  and the programs offered. Attending minority language or bilingual schools as part of one’s academic path is the combined result of decisions that have been made at different stages of education.

Maintaining and adopting minority languages as home languages is important to preserve them. In particular, adopting or retaining French as a language spoken at home contributes to restoring the demographic weight of the French-language minority population in Canada outside Quebec,^Note  a current priority for the Government of Canada.

Considering the link between the language of instruction and the language spoken at home, the results of this study show the importance of better understanding the dynamics of the choice of schools in minority language settings at the different levels of education. For example, future analyses could examine the factors associated with choosing to go to a minority language high school after elementary school, and then the choices of postsecondary studies. Moreover, other studies could also explore other aspects of the academic path, including the length of time spent studying at minority language institutions, or the impact of minority language child care services or preschool during early childhood on education in minority language schools at other levels.