Insights on Canadian Society
Language used at work by graduates of English, French or bilingual postsecondary institutions

by Étienne Lemyre

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Introduction

Postsecondary education in Canada is mostly provided in institutions that offer courses and programs in one of the two official languages, English or French. Access to elementary and secondary schools that offer education in a minority official language^Note  is governed by law^Note  in Quebec and in the rest of Canada. However, it is not so for postsecondary education. It is in this context that the language of instruction of postsecondary institutions is the subject of concern and debate in Quebec and in French-language minority communities elsewhere in Canada.

For example, in Quebec, there are periodic calls to limit funding to English-language universities and to restrict admission to English-language CEGEPs,^Note  raising concerns about the negative impact on the vitality of these institutions.^Note  One argument in favour of these restrictions is that English-language postsecondary institutions seem to encourage non-native speakers to use English predominantly in both the private and public spheres.^Note  The number of college students attending English-language institutions is increasing,^Note  particularly on Montréal Island, and this growth is fuelled by students whose mother tongue is not English.

Some studies suggest that there is a link between the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution attended and the language of work in Quebec. A study based on data from the 2005 National Graduates Survey indicates that among French-language college graduates, 95% were working primarily in French, compared with 50% of those who had done college studies in English. Among university graduates, the proportion who worked primarily in French was 92% when they had studied in French, compared with 25% when they had studied in English.^Note  Other studies based on the results of a survey of college students on Montréal Island show similar trends in the language used at work during their schooling^Note  and the expected language of work after graduation.^Note  Lastly, another study shows that among those with a mother tongue other than French or English (other mother tongue), the main factor driving the trend of CEGEP graduates using English at work is their country of origin.^Note 

In Canada outside Quebec, we are witnessing mobilization in favour of protecting and creating bilingual or French-language postsecondary programs and institutions.^Note  The preservation of French-language educational institutions is a priority for minority Francophone communities, since these institutions help to uphold the use of French within these communities. However, the use of French at work after completing postsecondary education in French has not been a focus for researchers to date, even though the use of French as the predominant language in the workplace declined in Canada outside Quebec from 2006 to 2016.^Note 

This study is based on data from the 2016 Census of Population, the Postsecondary Student Information System and the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials. Its purpose is to examine the relationship between the language of work and the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned. Specifically, this study examines the language used predominantly at work,^Note  by mother tongue,^Note  by individuals who graduated from a public postsecondary institution located in Canada between 2010 and 2015, who were working at a fixed location in 2016^Note  and who were Canadians or permanent residents at the end of their studies.

As a first step, this study examines the prevalence of English being used as the predominant language in the Quebec workplace, by language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned. Next, the effect of education-related factors (location of study, year of graduation, type of institution, field of study) and work-related factors (place of work, self-employment or not, industry) that determine the use of English at work is then examined. Finally, use of French as the predominant language at work in Canada outside Quebec is examined.

Educational institutions may be French-language, English-language or bilingual (including institutions with only one bilingual campus). Although their characteristics are different, bilingual institutions are grouped with English- or French-language institutions in some parts of this study to contrast institutions that offer courses and programs in the minority official language with other institutions (see “Data sources, methods and definitions” text box). It is also important to keep in mind that the link between the language of work and the language of instruction of the institution where the most recent degree was earned may be the result of language preferences that predate postsecondary studies. As a result, it is impossible to establish a causal link between the language of instruction of postsecondary institutions and the language used in the workplace.

Despite its limitations, this study contributes to existing knowledge in several ways. It is based on recent data and a very large sample size that is representative of postsecondary graduates in Canada. Unlike previous studies, this one isolates the impact of the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution attended from other factors associated with language use in the workplace. Finally, this is the first study to examine the relationship between the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned and the language used in the workplace in Canada outside Quebec.

There is a strong link between mother tongue and the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned

In Quebec, English- and French-mother-tongue postsecondary graduates were more likely to have studied at an institution where the language of instruction was the same as their mother tongue.

In fact, among graduates with French as their mother tongue, 93% had earned their most recent diploma from a French-language institution, 3% from a bilingual institution and 5% from an English-language institution.^Note  Among English-mother-tongue graduates, 82% had earned their most recent diploma from an English-language institution, 6% from a bilingual institution and 11% from a French-language institution.

In Quebec, the majority of graduates with an “other” mother tongue opted for French instruction. Specifically, among graduates with another mother tongue, 61% had earned their most recent diploma from a French-language institution, 5% from a bilingual institution and 33% from an English-language institution.

The situation of graduates was different in Canada’s other provinces and territories, where there are more bilingual institutions. For example, nearly one-quarter (23%) of graduates whose mother tongue is French had earned their most recent degree from a bilingual institution, 42% from a French-language institution and 35% from an English-language institution.

In addition, the majority of graduates whose mother tongue is either English or another language (88%) had earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution. The remaining proportion (12%) had earned it from a bilingual institution. Fewer than 1% of graduates whose mother tongue is either English or another language had earned their most recent degree from a French-language institution.

In Quebec, approximately one-quarter of graduates with French as their mother tongue whose most recent degree was from an English-language institution work primarily in English

In 2016, nearly half (48%) of graduates from an English-language institution used English predominantly at work, compared with 4% of those whose most recent degree was from a French-language institution (Chart 1).

The predominant use of English in the workplace was most pronounced among graduates whose mother tongue is English, and even more so when their educational institution was bilingual or English. About two-thirds of English-mother-tongue graduates used English predominantly at work when they had earned their most recent degree from a bilingual (70%) or English-language (65%) institution. Graduates whose mother tongue is English and who were educated at a French-language institution (26%) used English much less.

There is also a relationship between the language of work and the language of instruction of the institution where graduates with another mother tongue studied. Specifically, 46% of them worked predominantly in English when they graduated from an English-language institution, compared with 7% of those who had studied at a French-language institution.

In comparison, about one-quarter (23%) of graduates whose mother tongue is French used primarily English at work when their most recent degree was from an English-language institution. This proportion was lower when the most recent degree was from a bilingual (9%) or French-language (4%) institution.

Nearly three-quarters of graduates whose mother tongue is French and who use primarily English at work received their most recent degree from a French-language institution

In Quebec, a significant proportion of graduates whose mother tongue is French and who use English predominantly at work had studied at a French-language institution. In fact, 72% had earned their most recent degree from a French-language institution, 5% from a bilingual institution and 23% from an English-language institution.

The situation was different among graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language; a higher proportion of them had earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution. For example, among graduates whose mother tongue is English and who worked primarily in English, 88% had earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution. This proportion was 71% among graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French.

Three-quarters of graduates whose mother tongue is French or another language and who were educated in a French-language institution can conduct a conversation in English

The ability to conduct a conversation in English goes hand in hand with the possibility of using it as the predominant language at work, especially for those whose mother tongue is not English. In Quebec, a significant proportion of graduates whose mother tongue is French or another language could conduct a conversation in English regardless of the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where they earned their most recent degree.

Of the graduates whose mother tongue is French or another language and who graduated from a French-language institution, three-quarters (75%) could conduct a conversation in English. Fluency in English was somewhat more common among graduates of bilingual institutions (84%), and the difference between graduates whose mother tongue is French or another language was minimal.

Finally, approximately 99% of those who graduated from English-language institutions could conduct a conversation in English. A small number of graduates lacked the ability to do so because of attrition of their language skills following graduation or because they had attended a French-language program at an English-language institution.

The following sections focus only on graduates who reported being able to conduct a conversation in English.

University graduates and graduates who studied outside Quebec are more likely to use English predominantly at work

The level of education of the most recent postsecondary degree may have an impact on the language used in the workplace because college education often leads to different occupations and industries than university education. Among those who could conduct a conversation in English, the proportion of university graduates who worked primarily in English was higher than that of college graduates.

This difference was especially pronounced when the most recent degree was earned from an English-language or bilingual institution. For example, among graduates whose mother tongue is French and who attended an English-language or bilingual institution, 24% of university graduates used primarily English at work, compared with 14% of college graduates (Table 1). Among graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French, these proportions were 50% and 37%, respectively.

In addition, graduates who studied in a province or territory other than Quebec were more likely to use primarily English at work. For example, among graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French, the use of English as the predominant language at work was significantly higher when they had studied outside Quebec (53% versus 24%). This trend was similar for graduates whose mother tongue is French (14% versus 6%) or English (82% versus 58%).

Furthermore, having studied in a science, technology, engineering, mathematics or computer science (STEM) program was also somewhat linked to using English predominantly in the workplace, but only when the most recent degree was from an English-language or bilingual institution. For example, among graduates whose mother tongue is French and who earned their degree from an English-language or bilingual institution, 24% worked primarily in English when they had undertaken studies in STEM fields, while this proportion was 19% when they had undertaken studies in business, humanities, health, arts, social science and education (BHASE) and other non-STEM fields. It should be noted that the use of English is often associated with the STEM fields^Note  in the literature.

The proportion of graduates who use primarily English in the workplace is higher in Gatineau and on Montréal Island

Graduates who work in Gatineau^Note  and on Montréal Island were more likely to work primarily in English, especially if their studies were completed at an English-language or bilingual institution.

Among graduates with French as their mother tongue whose most recent degree was from an English-language or bilingual institution, 28% used English predominantly at work on Montréal Island, a proportion three times higher than that observed among their counterparts whose degree was from a French-language institution (9%) (Table 2). The gap was even more pronounced among graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French. In Gatineau, for example, the proportion of graduates with neither English nor French as their mother tongue who used primarily English at work was about seven times higher when their most recent degree was from an English-language or bilingual institution (57%), compared with graduates whose degree was from a French-language institution (8%). The concentration of the Anglophone population on Montréal Island and in Gatineau may largely explain the observed trends.

The use of English at work was also strongly linked to the educational services field, particularly among graduates of English-language or bilingual institutions. Among graduates of English-language or bilingual institutions who worked in educational services, 31% of those with French as their mother tongue, 65% of those with neither English nor French as their mother tongue, and 87% of those with English as their mother tongue used English predominantly in their workplace. Educational institutions of all levels are environments where the predominant language is generally the language of instruction. It is also in these environments that second languages are taught. Thus, teaching English and teaching in English account for much of the high prevalence of jobs in which the use of English predominates in the education field.

Finally, among graduates with English as their mother tongue and whose most recent degree was from an English-language or bilingual institution, those who were self-employed were more likely to use primarily English at work than those who were employees (75% versus 65%). The opposite trend is observed among graduates whose mother tongue is French (13% versus 20%).^Note  Among graduates whose mother tongue is English, this type of result may be explained in part by the fact that self-employed people are more easily able to work in the language of their choice, in this case their mother tongue.

In Quebec, the language of postsecondary education and place of work are the factors most strongly associated with English being used predominantly at work by graduates whose mother tongue is French or another language

Logistic regression analysis was conducted to control for the contribution of factors related to work and to postsecondary education. In a logistic regression, the odds ratio (OR) is used to determine how much more likely a category is to have the observed criterion compared with a reference category. As such, a category with an OR greater than 1 is more likely to have the observed criterion than the reference category, and a category with an OR less than 1 is less likely to have the observed criterion than the reference category. The OR of the reference category is always equal to 1.

The results of the multivariate analysis confirm the results of the descriptive analysis. They indicate that the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned and the place of work are the factors most strongly associated with English being the predominant language used in the workplace in Quebec. In fact, graduating from an English-language or bilingual institution was associated with the highest OR among the estimated models for graduates whose mother tongue is French (OR = 4.1), English (OR = 4.8) or another language (OR = 7.0). This association tends to confirm the strength of the relationship between attending an English-language or bilingual institution and the likelihood of working primarily in English (Table 3).

Moreover, even after other factors were controlled for, using English as the predominant language at work was still strongly related to the place of work, with this use of English more significant on Montréal Island and in Gatineau than elsewhere in the province. The place of work is the second most important factor, after the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution.

Outside Quebec, graduates whose mother tongue is French are three times more likely to use primarily French at work when their most recent degree was from a French-language institution

In Canada outside Quebec, the future of French-language or bilingual postsecondary institutions is being questioned because of financial difficulties these institutions face, leading to calls for protecting them and helping them grow. Preserving a French-language education continuum—from preschool to postsecondary—is a priority for Francophone communities outside Quebec because it allows the use of French to be maintained in these communities. Obviously, the possibility of studying in French also raises the question of the possibility of working in French outside Quebec.

Outside Quebec, using French predominantly at work was also related to the language of postsecondary education. For example, the proportion of graduates with French as their mother tongue who used French predominantly at work was more than three times higher among those whose most recent degree was from a French-language institution (48%) than among those whose degree was from an English-language institution (14%). A significant proportion (39%) of graduates with French as their mother tongue who earned their degree from a bilingual institution also used primarily French at work (Chart 2).

Moreover, 20% of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language used French predominantly at work when they earned their most recent degree from a French-language institution, compared with 1% of those with a degree from an English-language institution and 2% of those with a degree from a bilingual institution.

The vast majority of graduates with French as their mother tongue who work primarily in French received their most recent degree from a French-language or bilingual institution

Outside Quebec, the majority of graduates with French as their mother tongue who used French predominantly at work had earned their most recent degree from a French-language (59%) or bilingual (26%) institution. Furthermore, fewer than one in six graduates with French as their mother tongue who used primarily French at work had earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution (15%).

Conversely, 59% of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language and who used primarily French at work had earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution. Among graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language and who worked primarily in French, the proportion of those who earned their most recent degree from a bilingual institution (30%) far exceeded the proportion whose degree was from a French-language institution (12%).

Outside Quebec, graduates of bilingual institutions whose mother tongue is English or another language are almost twice as likely to be able to conduct a conversation in French as graduates of English-language institutions

For those who are not native speakers, the ability to conduct a conversation in French is essential for using it as a predominant language in the workplace. In Canada outside Quebec, graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language were more likely to know French when their most recent degree was from a French-language or bilingual institution. Some graduates, however, could no longer conduct a conversation in French because of attrition of their language skills after graduation or because they had completed a program of study in English at a French-language institution.

The proportion of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language and who could conduct a conversation in French was 19% when the postsecondary institution that awarded their most recent degree was bilingual. This proportion was just over half as high (11%) when it was an English-language institution.

Nevertheless, although only a small number of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language earned their most recent degree from a French-language institution, the majority (88%) could conduct a conversation in French.

Finally, among graduates whose mother tongue is French, the vast majority of graduates from French-language or bilingual institutions could conduct a conversation in that language (99% or more). However, this proportion was lower (96%) when it was an English-language institution.

The following sections focus only on graduates who reported being able to conduct a conversation in French.

Graduates who studied in a field other than science, technology, engineering, mathematics or computer science are more likely to use French at work

In Canada outside Quebec, graduates of French-language or bilingual colleges were more likely to use French predominantly at work than university graduates. It was the case for nearly half (49%) of college graduates whose mother tongue is French and about one-quarter (26%) of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language (Table 4). Among graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language, college graduates (26%) were more than twice as likely as university graduates (10%) to use primarily French at work.

In general, graduates who studied in fields other than science, technology, engineering, mathematics or computer science (STEM)—that is, business, humanities, health, arts, social science and education (BHASE) and other non-STEM fields—were significantly more likely to use French at work. This is especially true for graduates of French-language or bilingual institutions whose mother tongue is French; they were twice as likely to use French at work after studying in BHASE fields (48%) than after studying in STEM fields (24%). This was also true for graduates of French-language or bilingual institutions whose mother tongue is English or another language and who studied in BHASE fields (12%); they were three times more likely to work primarily in French than those who studied in STEM fields (4%).

Finally, graduates whose mother tongue is French were more likely to use primarily French at work after having studied outside Quebec (36%) than in Quebec (30%), especially when they studied at a French-language or bilingual institution (49% outside Quebec compared with 33% in Quebec). The concentration of these graduates in certain industries seems to explain this trend to a certain extent.^Note

Graduates working in New Brunswick or in educational services are more likely to work primarily in French

The province or territory where graduates worked was strongly associated with the propensity to use French predominantly at work. In New Brunswick, the proportion of graduates from French-language or bilingual institutions who worked primarily in French was 71% among graduates whose mother tongue is French and 44% among those whose mother tongue is English or another language (Table 5). A significant proportion of graduates from French-language or bilingual institutions whose mother tongue is French were also working primarily in French in Saskatchewan (53%) and Manitoba (50%). Alberta (22%) and British Columbia (26%) had the lowest proportions.

As with the use of English at work in Quebec, graduates outside of Quebec who worked in educational services were especially likely to work in French. For example, among graduates with French as their mother tongue who worked in this field, 80% worked primarily in French when their most recent degree was from a French-language or bilingual institution. A significant proportion (33%) of graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language and who attended a French-language or bilingual institution also used French predominantly at work when they worked in this industry. Again, this is largely because many of these graduates teach French or work at an institution where the language of instruction is French.

Furthermore, use of French as the predominant language at work was higher among employees than among self-employed workers, regardless of mother tongue.

In Moncton and Winnipeg, about half of graduates with French as their mother tongue and whose most recent degree was from a French-language or bilingual institution work primarily in French

In the following section, census metropolitan areas (CMAs) were classified by the proportion of the population whose mother tongue is French, resulting in the following three groups: 1) CMAs where the proportion of people whose mother tongue is French is less than 3%, 2) CMAs where the proportion of individuals whose mother tongue is French is between 3% and 24%, and 3) CMAs where the proportion of people whose mother tongue is French is 25% or more. The analysis focuses only on graduates whose mother tongue is French.

Moncton and Winnipeg stood out from the other CMAs for their high proportion of French-mother-tongue individuals and for their significant number of French-mother-tongue graduates whose predominant language of work was French. In fact, about half of the graduates of French-language institutions and one-quarter of the graduates of English-language institutions in these CMAs used French predominantly at work. This is significantly higher than what was observed in the other CMAs (Chart 3).

This is consistent with the fact that Moncton and Winnipeg differ from the other CMAs in that they have universities where courses are taught only in French. These environments offer both the possibility of completing studies solely in French and many opportunities to work in that language. Furthermore, the high proportion of the Francophone population in these CMAs may be related to a greater opportunity to work in French.

While the proportion of the population that is Francophone is relatively high in Greater Sudbury, the use of French at work by graduates of French-language or bilingual institutions (20%) is comparable to Calgary (26%), Halifax (28%) or Toronto (34%). This result could be explained in part by the presence of a bilingual university in Greater Sudbury rather than a French-only university;^Note by the large proportion of graduates in the goods manufacturing, trade, transportation and warehousing industries; and also by the fact that the French-speaking population in this CMA is less mobile than in the other CMAs mentioned.^Note 

Working in educational services is the factor most associated with the use of French as the predominant language at work outside Quebec

The results of the multivariate analysis show that employment in educational services is the factor most strongly associated with French being used as the predominant language at work outside Quebec. The likelihood of working primarily in French in educational services, compared with private services, is high among both graduates with French as their mother tongue (OR = 15.5) and graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language (OR = 28.4) (Table 6).

The importance of school settings where a minority official language is taught or instruction is provided in an official minority language was raised earlier in this study since a similar trend was observed in the use of English in the workplace by graduates in the education services field in Quebec whose mother tongue is English.

The language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned remained a significant factor related to the likelihood of working primarily in French for graduates whose mother tongue is French (OR = 4.6) and graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language (OR = 3.4). The province or territory of work was also significantly related to French being used as the predominant language at work. Graduates whose mother tongue is French were more likely to work primarily in French in New Brunswick (OR = 5.2) or Manitoba (OR = 1.8) than in Ontario. This was also the case for graduates whose mother tongue is English or another language (OR = 1.8 in New Brunswick and OR = 1.6 in Manitoba).

Conclusion

In Quebec, English-language postsecondary institutions are potentially facing caps on the number of new students and on funding. These caps are being proposed because of concerns that attendance at these institutions could lead to non-native speakers adopting English as their primary language of use. This study shows that in addition to the place of work, location of studies and the type of institution attended, the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned is in fact associated with the predominant use of English at work, as suggested by previous studies on the subject.

About one-quarter of graduates whose mother tongue is French worked primarily in English when they had studied at an English-language institution. This compares with 4% for those who had studied at a French-language institution. However, a large proportion of graduates with French as their mother tongue who used primarily English at work had earned their most recent degree from a French-language institution. As a result, the contribution of graduates from English-language or bilingual institutions to the total number of individuals with French as their mother tongue who worked primarily in English is relatively modest.

The relationship between the language of instruction of the postsecondary institution where the most recent degree was earned and English being used as the predominant language at work is stronger for graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French. About half of these graduates used primarily English at work when they had studied at an English-language institution, compared with 7% when they had studied at a French-language institution. Furthermore, graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French were more likely to attend English-language institutions; 71% of graduates with neither English nor French as their mother tongue and who worked primarily in English earned their most recent degree from an English-language institution. In a previous study on this topic, the country of origin of graduates whose mother tongue is neither English nor French was considered a factor that could explain this finding.^Note  However, more research on the language orientations of these graduates before postsecondary education is needed. For example, examining the language of instruction at the elementary and secondary levels would help better identify the role of postsecondary education in these graduates’ adoption of English as the predominant language of work.

Outside Quebec, Francophone minority communities want to reaffirm the role of French-language or bilingual institutions at the end of the French-language education continuum, since the future of some of these institutions is in question because of financial difficulties. The results show that there is a link between the language of instruction and the use of French at work. Specifically, the proportion of graduates with French as their mother tongue who worked primarily in French was more than three times higher when their most recent degree was from a French-language institution (48%) than when it was from an English-language institution (14%). Moreover, those who worked primarily in French in Canada outside Quebec were largely graduates of French-language or bilingual postsecondary institutions, which accounted for 85% of graduates with French as their mother tongue who worked primarily in French.

Other factors were associated with the predominant use of French in the workplace outside Quebec—such as place of work, type of institution attended and field of study—although the most significant factor was working in educational services. In fact, outside Quebec, working in this field was the factor most associated with French being used as the predominant language at work. For example, graduates working in educational services accounted for over 40% of graduates with French as their mother tongue and over 80% of graduates with English or another language as their mother tongue who worked primarily in French. These results indicate that the teaching of French or teaching in French, and the institutional networks that give rise to these teaching activities, make this field conducive to the use of French in the workplace, including by graduates whose mother tongue is French, English or another language.

Predominant use of a language is only one facet of language use at work. For example, the Census of Population data allow for an examination of languages used equally with another language or used regularly as a secondary language. Moreover, the predominant use of a language at work is only one dimension of language use in the public sphere. It is therefore not possible to generalize the results of this study to other aspects of language use, including language use in the private sphere, such as language spoken at home.

Of particular interest is the adoption of English or French as the predominant language at home after attending a postsecondary institution,^Note  including the implications for intergenerational transmission of language. Working in a language does not necessarily mean that this language will be spoken at home. A future study could address this issue by using data from two censuses integrated with data from the Postsecondary Student Information System. It would allow for consideration of a graduate’s home language and household composition before and after attending a French-language, English-language or bilingual postsecondary institution.

Finally, to better understand the results of this study, it is important to be able to report on the likelihood of choosing a postsecondary institution with a specific language profile, since language orientations of future graduates may predate postsecondary education. This type of study will be possible thanks to data from the new 2021 Census questions on language of instruction at the elementary and secondary levels, as well as data from the 2022 Survey on the Official Language Minority Population, which will include questions on the postsecondary education intentions of future students. It will provide a more detailed picture of the French- and English-language education continuum all the way through to the labour market.

Étienne Lemyre is an analyst at Statistics Canada’s Centre for Demography.

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