Intimate partner violence: Experiences of sexual minority women in Canada, 2018

Intimate partner violence (IPV) encompasses a broad range of behaviours, ranging from emotional and financial abuse to physical and sexual assault. Due to its widespread prevalence and its far-ranging immediate and long-term consequences for victims,^Note  their families and for communities as a whole, IPV is considered a major public health problem (World Health Organization 2017). In addition to the direct impacts on victims, IPV also has broader economic consequences (Peterson et al. 2018) and has been linked to the perpetuation of a cycle of intergenerational violence, leading to additional trauma.

Previous studies using data from the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces (SSPPS) have found that Canadians reporting a sexual minority identity—those whose sexual orientation is gay, lesbian, bisexual, or another sexual orientation that is not heterosexual—are more likely than heterosexual Canadians to experience violent victimization outside of intimate partner relationships (Jaffray 2020). Studies on Canadians’ experiences of IPV have found that women in general are more likely to experience more severe forms of IPV, including sexual and physical assault, and at a higher frequency than men (Burczycka 2016), and existing research suggests that sexual minority women, in particular bisexual women, experience higher rates of IPV than their heterosexual peers (Whitton et al. 2016; Brown and Herman 2015). This fact sheet will build on this existing research and continue to explore the nature, prevalence and impacts of IPV on sexual minority women,^Note  which provides important context and contributes to the depth and breadth of research on the experiences of this population.

This analysis focuses on the experiences of sexual minority women in Canada, which includes lesbian and bisexual women, as well as women whose sexual orientation was not heterosexual.^{Note  Note}  Notably, intimate partner violence experienced by sexual minority women could have been perpetrated by partners of the same gender or another gender—the gender of the perpetrator(s) for the lifetime measure of IPV are unknown,^Note  and sexual minority people may have been in a heterosexual relationship at some point since age 15. In fact, previous research has found that both lesbian and bisexual women who have experienced IPV reported male and female perpetrators (Walters et al. 2013; McLaughlin and Rozee 2001).

In this article, the experiences of sexual minority women will be compared to those of heterosexual women. It is well-documented that women experience a higher prevalence of severe forms of IPV than men, such as being choked, being assaulted or threatened with a weapon, or being sexually assaulted (Cotter 2021a; Burczycka 2016; Brieding et al. 2014). As such, comparing sexual minority women to heterosexual women will facilitate the analysis of sexual orientation and its impacts on women’s experiences of IPV.

This article, focusing on the experiences of sexual minority women in Canada, is one in a series of short reports examining experiences of intimate partner violence based on self-reported data from the 2018 SSPPS for various populations. It explores the prevalence, nature, and impact of IPV on sexual minority women. Experiences of IPV among the overall Canadian population (Cotter 2021a), sexual minority men (Jaffray 2021), Indigenous women (Heidinger 2021), women with disabilities (Savage 2021a), young women (Savage 2021b), and ethno-cultural minority women (Cotter 2021b) are examined in the other reports within this series.^Note 

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Two-thirds of sexual minority women have experienced IPV in their lifetime

Intimate partner violence (IPV) can occur as physical or sexual assault, however, it also includes less overtly violent types of abuse such as emotional, financial or psychological abuse. Although it may be perceived as less severe than physical or sexual assault due to the lower likelihood of physical injury, psychological abuse can also lead to emotional or physical consequences and contribute to long term deterioration of physical and mental well-being (Karakurt 2014). Physical, sexual and psychological IPV can also occur concurrently, or at different times throughout a relationship (Burke 1999).

According to the SSPPS, sexual minority women were much more likely to experience all forms of intimate partner violence than heterosexual women in Canada. Overall, two-thirds (67%) of sexual minority women who had ever been in an intimate partner relationship had experienced at least one type of IPV since the age of 15.^Note  This was significantly higher than the more than four in ten (44%) heterosexual women who reported similar experiences of abuse (Table 1).

Overall IPV remained high when broken down by sexual orientation. Similar proportions of bisexual (68%) and lesbian or gay (61%) women indicated that they had experienced some form of IPV in their lifetime, though both were significantly more likely to experience IPV than heterosexual women.

Almost half of sexual minority women experienced physical or sexual assault by an intimate partner

Almost half (49%) of sexual minority women indicated that they had been physically or sexually assaulted by an intimate partner since age 15, almost double what was indicated by heterosexual women (25%). The most common type of IPV experienced by both sexual minority (65%) and heterosexual (42%) women since age 15 was psychological abuse.

When it came to the specific types of IPV, there were some differences in the experiences of bisexual and lesbian or gay women. In particular, bisexual women (34%) were three times more likely to have been sexually assaulted by an intimate partner in their lifetime than heterosexual women (11%). Meanwhile, the prevalence was similar between lesbian or gay women (12%) and heterosexual women.

Almost half of bisexual women (48%) and more than one-third (35%) of lesbian or gay women had been physically assaulted, and two-thirds (67%) of bisexual women and three in five (59%) lesbian or gay women had been psychologically abused by an intimate partner since age 15. These proportions were significantly higher than what was experienced by heterosexual women, 23% of whom had been physically assaulted and 42% had been psychologically abused in their lifetime by an intimate partner (Table 2).

Sexual minority women at least two times more likely than heterosexual women to experience most types of IPV behaviours in their lifetime

The most common behaviours indicated by sexual minority women who experienced IPV in their lifetime were being put down or called names (52%), their partner being jealous and preventing them from talking to others (50%), being told they were crazy, stupid, or not good enough (46%), their partner making comments about their sexual past or sexual performance (35%), or their partner demanding to know where they were and who they were with at all times (34%)—all types of psychological abuse (Table 1). In addition, almost one-third (31%) of sexual minority women had been shaken, pushed, grabbed, or thrown by their partner, the most common type of physical or sexual abuse experienced by both sexual minority and heterosexual women in Canada.

The three most common IPV behaviours experienced by heterosexual women paralleled what was experienced by sexual minority women, however, the proportion of heterosexual women who reported experiencing these behaviours was much lower: being put down or called names (31%), their partner being jealous and preventing them from talking to others (29%), or being told they were crazy, stupid, or not good enough (27%). Overall, none of the IPV behaviours were experienced by more than one-third of heterosexual women.

Sexual minority women were more than two times more likely than heterosexual women to experience the majority of individual IPV behaviours measured through the SSPPS. However, sexual minority women were three times more likely to experience two behaviours in particular: a partner making them perform sex acts that they did not want to perform (24% for sexual minority women versus 8% for heterosexual women), and a partner confining or locking them in a room or other space (10% versus 3%), both among the more severe types of abuse measured.

Majority of sexual minority women who were victims of IPV experienced fear, anxiety or feelings of being controlled or trapped by a partner in their lifetime

There is often a psychological component to abuse within intimate partner relationships. Feelings of fear, or of being controlled or trapped can indicate coercive or manipulative behaviours, even in the absence of physical or sexual violence. In addition, these feelings can indicate patterns of behaviour and repetitive abuse by a partner (Gill and Aspinall 2020).

Among sexual minority women who had experienced IPV in their lifetime, more than half (51%) indicated that they had ever been afraid of a partner, significantly higher than heterosexual women (36%). The high proportion of sexual minority women who had feared a partner can be largely attributed to the experiences of bisexual women, 61% of whom reported that they had been afraid of a partner. There was no significant difference between the proportions of lesbian or gay (32%) and heterosexual women who had ever feared a partner.

More than half of sexual minority women who had been victims of IPV in their lifetime indicated that they had feelings of anxiety (66%) or had felt controlled or trapped (53%) by an intimate partner at some point in their life. This was significantly higher than what was indicated by heterosexual women who were victims of lifetime IPV, 57% of whom had felt anxious and 42% of whom had felt controlled or trapped by a partner.

Notably, the differences between the experiences of sexual minority and heterosexual women with a history of IPV in their lifetime was primarily due to the experiences of bisexual women, 74% of whom indicated that they had been anxious or on edge and 60% who had said that they had felt controlled or trapped by an intimate partner in their lifetime. Meanwhile, less than half (48%) of lesbian or gay women said that they had felt anxious due to a partner and 38% had felt controlled or trapped, findings that were not statistically different from what was noted by heterosexual women.

One in five sexual minority women experienced some form of IPV in the past 12 months

In addition to asking about people’s experiences of IPV over the course of their lifetime, the SSPPS also collected detailed information on the frequency and specific behaviours experienced within the past 12 months. According to the SSPPS, women in general were more likely to have experienced the most severe forms of IPV and to experience IPV more frequently than men within the 12 months preceding the survey (Cotter 2021a).

Among sexual minority women in particular, one in five (20%) had indicated that they had experienced some form of IPV within the past year, almost twice what was said by heterosexual women (12%). As was the case for lifetime IPV, the prevalence of IPV in the past year, overall, was largely led by psychological abuse—experienced by 19% of sexual minority women and 11% of heterosexual women (Table 2).

The most common types of psychological abuse experienced in the past 12 months largely mirrored the lifetime prevalence data. The most common behaviours were the same for both sexual minority and heterosexual women, but were experienced by a much larger proportion of sexual minority women than heterosexual women. Three of the most common behaviours experienced in the past 12 months were being put down or called names (experienced by 17% of sexual minority women versus 8% of heterosexual women), jealousy (12% versus 5%), and their partner demanding to know where they were and who they were with at all times (9% versus 3%).

Sexual minority women were also significantly more likely to have experienced physical and sexual abuse in the past 12 months. In fact, they were three times more likely to have been physically assaulted (7% versus 2%) and four times more likely to have been sexually assaulted (4% versus 1%) by an intimate partner than their heterosexual peers.

Sexual minority women more likely to experience more severe forms of IPV than heterosexual women

Research to date has indicated that overall, women experience more severe forms of IPV than men, and at a higher frequency (Cotter 2021a). In particular, sexual minority women were much more likely to experience some of the more severe types of physical and sexual assault than heterosexual women. For instance, sexual minority women were almost seven times more likely to have been made to perform sex acts that they did not want to perform (4.4% versus 0.7%) and to have been choked (2.6% versus 0.4%) in the past year than heterosexual women (Table 1).

Sexual minority women also experienced IPV at a higher frequency than heterosexual women. In fact, sexual minority women were more likely than heterosexual women to say that IPV had occurred ‘monthly or more’ in the 12 months preceding the SSPPS (44% versus 29%).

Vast majority of sexual minority women experience emotional impacts as a result of IPV

Intimate partner violence, whether it is physical, sexual or psychological, can have both short and long-term emotional impacts on victims, regardless of their sexual orientation. Previous research has noted that beyond physical injuries, victims of IPV may develop chronic physical health problems or mental health effects such as post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, alcohol or drug abuse, or other types of emotional distress (Campbell 2002).

Overall, the vast majority (92%) of sexual minority women experienced at least one emotional impact as a result of their experiences of IPV in the past 12 months (Chart 1). Most commonly, sexual minority women reported that they were upset, confused or frustrated (64%), hurt or disappointed (59%), or angry (58%) as a result of the abuse. These were the same emotional impacts that were most commonly reported by heterosexual women (57%, 57% and 52%, respectively). Sexual minority women were more likely than heterosexual women to indicate that they had become more cautious or aware (50% versus 31%, respectively),  had lowered self-esteem (48% versus 32%), felt ashamed or guilty (38% versus 21%), felt victimized (37% versus 24%), and had developed a lack of trust in others (37% versus 24%) as a result of the abuse that they had experienced.

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Sexual minority women more likely to report symptoms of PTSD as a result of IPV

More than one-quarter (28%) of sexual minority women who were victims of IPV in the past year indicated that they had experienced symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the past month, more than two times higher than what was reported by heterosexual women victims (12%).

Research has consistently found that experiences of sexual or physical assault can lead to the development of symptoms consistent with PTSD (Wathen et al. 2016; Wuest et al. 2009; Bennice 2003; Stein 2001). Since sexual minority women are more likely to experience more severe types of IPV, including sexual and physical abuse, the resulting trauma of these experiences could contribute to their increased likelihood of experiencing PTSD symptoms.

More than half of sexual minority women who were victims of IPV told friends or neighbours about their experiences

About one in ten (9%) sexual minority women who had experienced IPV in the past year indicated that the police had found out about the incident, either because they, or someone else had informed the police—a proportion that was similar to heterosexual women. In addition, almost three-quarters (72%) of sexual minority women had spoken with someone other than the police about their experience of abuse. In general, they were more likely to speak to people with whom they had close relationships, with more than half (55%) of sexual minority women indicating that they had spoken about their experiences with a friend or neighbour, and 40% saying they had spoken with a family member. This was similar to what was reported by heterosexual women who were victims of IPV, almost half (46%) of whom had spoken with a friend or neighbour and 37% had spoken with a family member.

Sexual minority women victims of childhood abuse more likely to experience IPV than heterosexual women victims

Research has shown that sexual minorities are more likely to have been victims of adverse childhood experiences (Andersen et al. 2015) and are also more likely to be violently victimized in adulthood (Jaffray 2020; Simpson 2018) than those who are heterosexual, findings that are supported by the SSPPS. On this survey, more than 6 in 10 (63%) sexual minority women said that they had been victims of sexual assault in childhood, significantly higher than what was indicated by heterosexual women (40%). Similarly, slightly less than 6 in 10 sexual minority women (58%) and almost 4 in 10 heterosexual women (37%) indicated that they had been physically assaulted in childhood.

Among sexual minority women who had been sexually or physically abused by an adult before the age of 15, the vast majority (81%) indicated that they had experienced psychological, physical or sexual IPV as an adult.^Note  In contrast, about two-thirds (66%) of heterosexual women who had experienced childhood physical or sexual abuse said that they had experienced IPV as an adult (Table 3).

Sexual minority women with a history of childhood abuse were also much more likely to have experienced IPV in the past 12 months than heterosexual women. Among those who had been abused in childhood, more than a quarter (26%) of sexual minority women had been victims of IPV in the past year, compared with 17% of heterosexual women.

In addition to the association between childhood victimization and future experiences of violent victimization, emotional abuse in childhood has also been associated with an increased risk of violence (Richards et al. 2017). In particular, harsh parenting—that is having been slapped, spanked, made to feel unwanted or unloved, or been neglected or having basic needs go unmet by parents or caregivers—has been shown to increase the likelihood of experiencing IPV, regardless of gender (Cotter 2021a). Among sexual minority women, those who had experienced these types of behaviours in childhood were much more likely than heterosexual women with these experiences to be victims of IPV, both in their lifetime (72% versus 53%) and in the past 12 months (22% versus 14%) (Table 3).

Among sexual minority women who witnessed emotional abuse or physical violence between parents or caregivers in childhood, about 3 in 4 (75%) had also experienced IPV in their lifetime. The prevalence was lower among heterosexual women who had witnessed abuse, 64% whom had experienced IPV. Similarly, almost 1 in 5 (20%) sexual minority women who witnessed abuse in childhood had been victims of IPV in the past year, compared with 16% of heterosexual women.

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Detailed data tables

Table 1 Intimate partner violence since age 15 and in the past 12 months, by type of intimate partner violence and sexual orientation, Canada, 2018

Table 2 Intimate partner violence since age 15 and in the past 12 months, by sexual orientation, Canada, 2018

Table 3 Intimate partner violence since age 15 and in the past 12 months, by selected characteristics of victim and sexual orientation, Canada, 2018

Table 4 Physical and sexual assault committed by intimate partners and non-intimate partners since age 15, by sexual orientation, Canada, 2018

Table 5 Physical and sexual assault committed by intimate partners and non-intimate partners in the past 12 months, by sexual orientation, Canada, 2018

Table 6 Physical and sexual assault committed by intimate partners and non-intimate partners since age 15, by sexual orientation and province and territory, 2018

Survey description

In 2018, Statistics Canada conducted the first cycle of the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces (SSPPS). The purpose of the survey is to collect information on Canadians’ experiences in public, at work, online, and in their intimate partner relationships.

The target population for the SSPPS is the Canadian population aged 15 and older, living in the provinces and territories. Canadians residing in institutions are not included. This means that the survey results may not reflect the experiences of intimate partner violence among those living in shelters, institutions, or other collective dwellings. Once a household was contacted, an individual 15 years or older was randomly selected to respond to the survey.

In the provinces, data collection took place from April to December 2018 inclusively. Responses were obtained by self-administered online questionnaire or by interviewer-administered telephone questionnaire. Respondents were able to respond in the official language of their choice. The sample size for the 10 provinces was 43,296 respondents. The response rate in the provinces was 43.1%.

In the territories, data collection took place from July to December 2018 inclusively. Responses were obtained by self-administered online questionnaire or by interviewer-administered in-person questionnaire. Respondents were able to respond in the official language of their choice. The sample size for the 3 territories was 2,597 respondents. The response rate in the territories was 73.2%.

Non-respondents included people who refused to participate, could not be reached, or could not speak English or French. Respondents in the sample were weighted so that their responses represent the non-institutionalized Canadian population aged 15 and older.

Data limitations

As with any household survey, there are some data limitations. The results are based on a sample and are therefore subject to sampling errors. Somewhat different results might have been obtained if the entire population had been surveyed.

For the quality of estimates, the lower and upper bounds of the confidence intervals are presented. Confidence intervals should be interpreted as follows: If the survey were repeated many times, then 95% of the time (or 19 times out of 20), the confidence interval would cover the true population value.

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