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Chapter C
Access to education, participation and progression
C1. International students
C2. Transitions to the labour market
C3. Participation in adult learning
C1 International students
Context
This indicator presents the proportions of international and foreign students enrolled in tertiary education in accordance with the three International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) categories,1 which represent enrolments in colleges and universities. Change in the number of foreign students over time is also examined.
Students may choose to pursue their education abroad for many reasons. Some may do so because they wish to explore different cultures, societies and languages while improving their employment prospects. Others, particularly those in developing countries, may actually need to leave their home country to pursue a tertiary education. Growing recognition of the importance of tertiary education as a determinant of higher earnings and employability has led to a growing demand, one that educational institutions in some countries may find difficult to meet. At the same time, the globalization of markets has increased demand for workers with broader knowledge and competencies, with work increasingly performed by teams that may span regions and countries.
International and foreign students are generally well received because they represent an additional source of revenue for the institutions they attend. They may also contribute to the viability of programs when the domestic student base is somewhat limited. In Canada, as in other countries that belong to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), many institutions and governments are now actively marketing their educational programs to attract such students. In addition to the economic benefits they may provide, international and foreign students also add to the social and cultural dimensions of the communities in which they study. They may become future citizens, or they may become unofficial ambassadors when they return home.
Observations
Proportion of international students in tertiary education
In Canada, international students accounted for 6% of all students enrolled in tertiary education in 2007, a proportion fairly similar to the average for OECD countries (7%) and behind Belgium (9%) (Table C.1.1). The highest proportions of international students were recorded for Australia (21%), Austria (16%), the United Kingdom (15%), Switzerland (14%) and New Zealand (13%).2 For Canada, the concept of “international students” includes students who are not Canadian citizens and who do not hold a permanent residency permit in Canada (please see the “Definitions sources and methodology” section of this indicator for the detailed definition).
Table C.1.1
Student mobility and foreign students in tertiary education, and average annual growth rate for foreign enrolments, Canada and jurisdictions, 2007Across the provinces, there was little variation in the proportion of international students enrolled in the tertiary education systems, with figures registering close to the Canada average of 6% in six provinces: Manitoba, Ontario, Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. With 11%, Prince Edward Island has the highest proportion of international students, almost double the Canada average (Table C.1.1). These figures for Canada are drawn from the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) (see the “Definitions, sources and methodology” section for this indicator, as well as the “ISCED classifications and descriptions” for PSIS in the Notes to readers section for more information).
International students and type of tertiary education
In Canada, international students accounted for a higher proportion of enrolment in ISCED 6 (advanced research) programmes (20%) than in ISCED 5A (tertiary-type A) (7%) and ISCED 5B (tertiary-type B) (4%) programmes. This pattern is evident in all provinces (Table C.1.1; Chart C.1.1). Correspondingly, across the OECD countries in general, 18% of students in advanced research programmes were international students, as were 7% of tertiary-type A and 4% of tertiary-type B students. While patterns vary across OECD countries, in some countries, like Australia for example—a key competitor to Canada in the market for international students—similar proportions of international students are enrolled in tertiary-type A (21%) and advanced research programmes (23%).
Chart C.1.1
Percentage of international students in tertiary enrolments, by level of education, 2007
Among the provinces, the largest proportion of international students in ISCED 6 (advanced research) programmes, 46%, was observed in Prince Edward Island (this was also among the highest proportions for this category observed across the OECD countries). In six other provinces, Saskatchewan (35%), Newfoundland and Labrador (33%), Manitoba (29%), British Columbia (24%), New Brunswick (24%), and Alberta (21%) the proportions of international students in advanced research programs were higher than the Canada average (20%) and higher than the average for the OECD countries (18%) (Table C.1.1; Chart C.1.1).
Generally, there was less variation across the provinces in the proportion of international students enrolled in the ISCED 5A and 5B programmes. In all provinces, they accounted for between 5% and 10% of tertiary-type A students, and for less than 5% of all students in tertiary-type B programs. The exception is again Prince Edward Island, where 21% of tertiary type B students were from abroad in 2007 (Table C.1.1; Chart C.1.1).
Change in the number of foreign students
In Canada, as in other countries, “foreign students” covers all students who are not Canadian citizens, including those who are permanent residents of the country (thus distinguishing them from “international students”). The number of foreign students3 who were pursuing tertiary programmes in the country rose by 8% a year on average between 2001 and 2007, a slower rate of growth than that registered in OECD countries on average (13%) (Table C.1.1).
Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Manitoba posted the strongest growth of foreign enrolments in tertiary education, with average annual increases of more than 10% between 2001 and 2007 (Table C.1.1). All of the other provinces also registered increases, although the annual average rate of increase posted in these provinces was lower than the OECD average.
Definitions, sources and methodology
This indicator examines the proportion of international and foreign students in the different categories of tertiary education. It also provides insight into the change in the number of foreign students.
International students are those who, for the specific purpose of pursuing their education, go to a country other than their country of residence or the country in which they were previously educated. These students may be defined on the basis of either the country of which they were permanent residents or the country in which they were previously educated (regardless of their nationality). In Canada, this concept includes students who are not Canadian citizens and who do not hold a permanent residency permit in Canada. Foreign students are those who are educated in a country for which they do not hold citizenship. In Canada, as in other countries, this concept covers all students who are not Canadian citizens (it therefore includes permanent residents).
The proportion of international students at a given education level is obtained by dividing the number of students who are not Canadian citizens and who are not permanent residents of Canada by the total number of students at that level, and multiplying this ratio by 100. The proportion of foreign students at a given education level is obtained by dividing the number of students who are not Canadian citizens by the total number of students, and multiplying this ratio by 100. The total number of students includes all individuals educated in Canada, whether they are Canadian citizens or foreign nationals, but it excludes all Canadian citizens who are educated abroad.
The Canadian data are drawn from Statistics Canada’s Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS), which only covers public postsecondary institutions. As not all institutions currently provide data to PSIS, results for some jurisdictions rely in part on estimates submitted to the institutions for validation. The data on foreign students and international students reflect the 2007/2008 academic year (2006/2007 for Canada) and are drawn from the UOE collection of statistical data on education, which was carried out by the OECD in 2009.
Note: The corresponding OECD indicator is C2, Who studies abroad and where?.
C2 Transitions to the labour market
Context
This indicator focuses on transitions from education to the working world. The percentages of individuals between 15 and 29 years of age who are considered to be “in education” or “not in education” are presented, along with their respective employment situations. Such information can be helpful in understanding the various combinations of school and work, as well as some of the transitions between the two.
In most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, including Canada, education policymakers strive to encourage young people to complete at least their secondary education. Recognition of the importance of postsecondary education for economic and social success—both for individuals and society—is also increasing. However, the decisions that young people make regarding their education may be influenced by economic conditions; for example, they may be inclined to leave school and enter the work force when the labour market is strong, and then continue their education when the labour market is weaker. Since many jobs now require more specialized knowledge than ever before, individuals with lower educational attainment are often comparatively disadvantaged.
Observations
In education, not in education
In 2008, the majority of 15- to 19-year-olds in Canada (80%) were still involved in education (Table C.2.1). This means, however, that the remaining 20% of these youth—one in five—were no longer pursuing a formal education (Chart C.2.1). This figure is high, given that school attendance is compulsory until at least age 16 in most of Canada and until age 18 in Ontario and New Brunswick. Among OECD countries, an average of 15% of 15- to 19-year-olds were not in education—the same estimate recorded for the United States.4 In comparison with Canada, however, few other OECD countries had similarly high, or higher, proportions of young people “not in education.”5 Australia and Spain, both with 21%, reflected a situation similar to that of Canada’s in 2008, and only Turkey (52%), the United Kingdom (24%), New Zealand (25%) and Norway (22%) registered higher proportions.
The proportion of Canadian 15- to 19-year-olds “in education” remained quite stable over the 1998-to-2008 period, at around 80% (Table C.2.2). In the OECD countries overall, the corresponding proportion rose from 80% in 1998 to 85% in 2008, indicating the growing recognition among today’s youth that staying in school is important to their future.
The proportion of young people aged 15 to 19 who were “not in education” varied from one province to another in 2008, from 14% in New Brunswick to 26% in Alberta (Table C.2.1; Chart C.2.1). The corresponding estimates for the North were also high, ranging from 25% to 34%. The attraction presented by very dynamic provincial labour markets may explain inter-provincial differences.
Employability affected
Owing to their youth, teens aged 15 to 19 often have both lower educational attainment and less work experience than young adults in their twenties. Those in the younger group who are not in school are more likely to be unemployed or not in the labour force (not looking for a job and not employed). In Canada in 2008, among 15- to 19-year-olds, about 3% were unemployed and “not in education” (Table C.2.1). And just over 4% were “not in the labour force,” meaning that they were not looking for a job, so were neither employed nor unemployed. When taken together and considered as a proportion of the 15- to 19-year-olds who were no longer pursuing their education, this “non-employment” group (the unemployed together with those not in the labour force) accounts for 37% (Chart C.2.2). This compares with 17% among young people aged 25 to 29—a considerable difference. This rather wide gap indicates the relative difficulty that the younger group, which has lower educational qualifications, may encounter in finding employment or keeping a job.
Although any young adult who is no longer pursuing an education may face some problems with employability, it appears that Canada’s 15- to 19-year-olds may fare slightly better than their counterparts in other OECD countries in terms of moving into the labour market. According to the latest OECD averages, the same comparison of proportions for the youngest and oldest age groups yields a 25-percentage-point gap, notably higher than the 20-point difference in Canada (Table C.2.1). This indicates that, in Canada versus other countries, the 15- to 19-year-olds who are not in education are in a relatively stronger position than in some other countries when compared against those aged 25 to 29, who have likely attained a higher level of education. So, even though Canada has more not-in-education youth than other OECD countries, these 15- to 19-year-old Canadians seem to fare better in terms of integrating into the labour market.
Employment rates
An examination of employment rates among not-in-education Canadians aged 15 to 19 again reveals that the country compares favourably against other OECD member countries. Considering the percentage of employed 15- to 19-year-olds in Canada (12%) as a proportion of the total for these ages who were no longer in education (20%) reveals an employment rate of 63% in 2008 (Table C.2.1; Chart C.2.3). The latest comparable OECD employment rate, 56%, is based on data from the member countries for which comparable data were available. With an employment rate of 63%, the United Kingdom paralleled Canada, while, with 69%, Australia fared better.
Chart C.2.3
Percentage of 15- to 19-year-olds not in education and their employment rate, 2008
As observed with respect to the OECD countries, some provinces seem more successful than others in meeting the challenge of integrating young adults with relatively low educational attainment into the labour force. In the Western provinces, the association of relatively high employment rates (around 70%) and relatively high proportions of young people not in education, indicates that labour markets with shortages can draw and employ young people regardless of their educational attainment (Chart C.2.3). The situation in the other provinces appears more typical of the difficulties young people may expect when leaving the education system early, while the patterns in the three territories are somewhat different and not unexpected for the North.
Definitions, sources and methodology
The indicator is calculated using cross-tabulations for the variables school attendance, labour force status, and age. Individuals are categorized by their education status (in education or not in education) and their labour force status (employed, unemployed, or not in the labour force). Distributions are shown for three separate young adult age groups: 15 to 19; 20 to 24; and 25 to 29). Some historical data are also presented.
The “in education” group captures both full- and part-time students, while “not in education” portrays those who are no longer pursuing a formal education. Employment status is based on International Labour Organization (ILO) guidelines. The employed are defined as those who during the survey reference week:(i) work for pay (employees) or profit (self-employed and unpaid family workers) for at least one hour; or ii) have a job but are temporarily not at work (through injury, illness, holiday, strike or lock-out, educational or training leave, maternity or parental leave, etc.). The unemployed are defined as individuals who are, during the survey reference week, without work, actively seeking employment and currently available to start work. And not in the labour force captures individuals who are not working and who are not unemployed; i.e., individuals who are not looking for a job.
The data were obtained from Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey (LFS),6 and they cover the first quarter or the average of the first three months of the calendar year, which excludes summer employment. The LFS does not collect data on official work-study programmes in which students might participate; in Canada, these would be considered education in the form of a co-op or student intern programme.
Note: The corresponding OECD indicator is C3, How successful are students in moving from education to work?.
C3 Participation in adult learning
Context
This indicator examines participation in education and training among the adult population aged 25 to 64. People in this age range are generally considered to be older than the typical school-age population as a large proportion have completed their initial education and training. The initial stage of education is pursued in elementary and secondary schools, and increasingly in postsecondary institutions, and often completed in young adulthood. By focussing on this age group, this indicator provides information on the proportion of adults who participate in education and training later in life for many reasons, including job- or career-related choices. Data are presented by age group and by sex, according to educational attainment, which reflects the highest level of education successfully completed.
In Canada and across other countries that belong to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), there is widespread recognition of the economic and social benefits conferred by education and training on individuals, businesses, and communities. The importance of education and training, however, is not confined to the initial cycle of learning. In recent years, widespread change in various forms, for example, the development and application of new information and communications technologies, globalization, new scientific innovations, and new ways of understanding the social and natural worlds, have affected workplaces, communities, and personal lives in various respects. Learning throughout the lifespan is a way of adjusting to and keeping abreast of change—which is not expected to slow—in the labour market, the workplace, and a knowledge-intensive world.
Observations
Overall adult participation in education and training
In Canada in 2008, 42% of adults aged 25 to 64 had participated in formal and/or non-formal education or training for job-related or personal reasons (Table C.3.1; Chart C.3.1). Formal education and training consists of structured learning activities that lead to a formal credential, such as recognized degrees, diplomas, certificates or licenses. Non-formal education and training consists of structured learning activities that do not lead to a formal credential. It includes courses that are not part of a program, workshops, and seminars.
On average, Canadian adults participated in education and training at the same rate as their counterparts in other OECD countries overall (41%) (Table C.3.1). According to the latest figures from the OECD,7 adults in the following countries had higher rates of participation when compared with Canada: Sweden (73%), New Zealand (67%), Switzerland (57%), Finland (55%), Norway (55%), United Kingdom (49%), United States (49%), Germany, Netherlands, Denmark (45%), and the Slovak Republic (44%).
Participation in adult education in Canada and internationally is affected by myriad factors, including the structure of local and regional economies, the structure of the formal education system, opportunities for adult learning, and demographic contexts and personal needs. Participation rates varied somewhat across the country, and were above the Canada (and OECD) average in five provinces: Alberta (49%), Saskatchewan (47%), Prince Edward Island (47%), Ontario (45%), and Manitoba (44%) (Table C.3.1; Chart C.3.1). The lowest rates were recorded in Newfoundland and Labrador (38%), New Brunswick (37%) and Quebec (36%). Participation rates were similar to the Canadian average in Nova Scotia (43%) and British Columbia (42%).
Participation by age
In Canada overall and in most provinces, adults in the youngest age group (i.e., those aged 25 to 34) had the highest rate of participation in education and training. This pattern was also observed across most of the OECD countries. By contrast, adults nearing the age of retirement, that is those aged 55 to 64, had the lowest rates of participation in all Canadian provinces and across OECD countries. In Canada, adults in the 25-to-34 age group participated at almost twice the rate (50%) as those aged 55 to 64 (28%) (Table C.3.1; Chart C.3.1). The levels of participation by the youngest and oldest Canadian adults were similar to the OECD averages for the corresponding age groups.
It is also important to examine the learning activities of individuals in the 35-to-44 and 45-to-54 age groups, as they represent a large part of the labour force, or potential labour force. In Canada, participation rates for individuals in these two groups were somewhat lower than for those aged 25 to 34, yet they remained above 40% (Table C.3.1). More specifically, 47% of adults aged 35 to 44 and 42% of those aged 45 to 54 participated in some type of education or training in 2008, whether for personal or job-related reasons.
The level of participation in education and training demonstrated by Canadians in the middle age groups did not differ much from that observed in some of its fellow OECD countries. The education and training participation rates for Canadians in both the 35-to-44 and 45-to-54 age groups were slightly higher than the corresponding OECD averages (44% and 40%, respectively) (Table C.3.1), but slightly lower than those for some countries, such as Germany (51% and 47%), the United Kingdom (51% and 49%) and the United States (49% and 48%).
Across the provinces, adults in Prince Edward Island, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta recorded higher participation rates than the Canadian and (OECD) average in both the 35-to-44 and 45-to-54 age groups (Table C.3.1). In most provinces, the highest participation rates were observed for the youngest adults (those aged 25 to 34), while rates were slightly higher among individuals aged 35 to 44 in Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, and Manitoba. In Saskatchewan, the highest participation rates occurred among those in the 35-to-44 and 45-to-54 age groups (over 50% for both these age groups).
At the Canada level, there was little difference in the participation rates of men and women in education and training in the 25-to-34, 35-to-44, and 55-to-64 age groups. Women aged 45 to 54 participated in education and training at a slightly higher rate than men (46% compared with 38%) (Table C.3.1). Internationally, differences between the participation rates of men and women were also generally small.
Participation by educational attainment
Consistent with other research findings, adult participation in education and training is positively related to educational attainment, or the highest qualification held by an individual. This is the case in Canada as a whole and in each province, as well as in OECD countries in general. In Canada, 18% of adults who had “below upper secondary education” (the equivalent of less than secondary school completion) as their highest level of attainment had participated in education and training in 2008 (Table C.3.2; Chart C.3.2). This figure increased to 32% for those with upper secondary or non-tertiary postsecondary education (the equivalent of secondary school completion or trades/apprenticeship training), and to 54% for those with a tertiary (or postsecondary) education. In other words, there was a 36-percentage-point difference in the rates of participation in learning activities between adults with the highest levels of attainment and those with the lowest. For the OECD average, the difference in participation rates (38 percentage points) between the most and least educated was similar to that observed in Canada. However, average participation rates at all levels of educational attainment for the OECD are slightly higher than in Canada.
Across the provinces, the smallest difference in participation rates by highest level of education attained was observed in British Columbia (20 percentage point difference) (Table C.3.2; Chart C.3.2). This smaller gap reflects a higher rate of participation in adult learning in British Columbia among those without secondary school compared with their Canadian counterparts. In British Columbia, 30% of those without a secondary school credential participated in adult learning activities in 2008, almost double the Canadian average (18%). Among those with a postsecondary credential, however, individuals in British Columbia participated in adult learning at a slightly lower rate than the average in Canada: 50% compared with 54%.
In all provinces except Alberta, the difference in participation rates in favour of individuals with higher educational attainment was more pronounced among women than men. In Alberta, women who had not completed secondary school had higher rates of participation in adult education and training in 2008 than did men (23% compared with 17%).
Definitions, sources and methodology
This indicator examines participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training among adults aged 25 to 64. The information is presented by educational attainment, by age group, and by sex.
The concept of adult learning presented in this indicator encompasses both formal and non-formal education regardless of whether it was taken for job-related purposes or personal interest. According to the definitions in the Classification of Learning Activities (CLA) elaborated under the leadership of Eurostat, “formal education” is defined as education provided in the formal systems of education consisting of schools, colleges, universities and other formal education institutions and that normally constitutes a continuous ladder of full-time education for children and young people, generally beginning at age 5 to 7 and continuing up to 20 or 25 or above. “Non-formal education” is defined as any organized and sustained educational activities that do not correspond exactly to the above definitions of formal education. Non-formal education may therefore take place both within and outside educational institutions, and may cater to people of all ages. It may cover educational programs to impart adult literacy, basic education for out-of-school children, life skills, work skills and general culture. Non-formal education programs do not necessarily follow the “ladder system,” and may have differing durations.8
The data for Canada and the provinces were drawn from the Access and Support to Education and Training Survey (ASETS) and refer to learning activities that took place between July 2007 and June 2008. The international figures used by the OECD are obtained for European countries from the European Adult Education Survey (AES) co-ordinated by Eurostat, and for other non-European countries, from national surveys with concepts matching closely those of the AES. The various national surveys were conducted for reference years spanning from 2005 and 2008.
Note: The corresponding OECD indicator is A5, How many adults participate in adult learning?.
Notes
- Please see the “ISCED classification and descriptions” section in this report’s Notes to readers for brief descriptions of the ISCED categories.
- The international data presented in this report reflect the figures available from the OECD at the time of writing; however, the OECD may have made further final adjustments that could not be reflected here. For more detailed information on the latest international statistics, please refer to Education at a Glance 2010: OECD Indicators, available on the OECD’s Web site: www.oecd.org.
- The preferred statistic from the Canadian perspective is change in the number of international students. However, a time series for this concept is not possible at this time as the OECD only recently began to collect data on this concept in 2005.
- The international data presented in this report reflect the figures available from the OECD at the time of writing; however, the OECD may have made further final adjustments that could not be reflected here. For more detailed information on the latest international statistics, please refer to Education at a Glance 2010: OECD Indicators, available on the OECD’s Web site: www.oecd.org.
- Data presented in Indicator A1 show that the attainment level of Canada’s population as a whole is high relative to the OECD average. A recent Canadian study has also demonstrated the importance of “second-chance” programs in addressing the needs of the 20% who have left education between the ages of 15 and 19. While a portion of these individuals will have completed high school by age 19, others will have left early, without a high school credential. See Interrupting High School and Returning to Education, a Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program (PCEIP) fact sheet, based on data from the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS) (released April 29, 2010, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 81-582-X; available free on the Statistics Canada Web site at www.statcan.gc.ca).
- For more details on the Labour Force Survey (LFS), please see the “Definitions, sources and methodology” sections for Indicators A1 and A5, as well as the Notes to readers.
- The international data presented in this report reflect the figures available from the OECD at the time of writing; however, the OECD may have made further final adjustments that could not be reflected here. For more detailed information on the latest international statistics, please refer to Education at a Glance 2010: OECD Indicators, available on the OECD’s Web site: www.oecd.org.
- This indicator does not cover informal learning activities, another important component of adult learning. “Informal learning” refers to education that is not organized, does not usually have set learning objectives, and is not led by an instructor. Examples of informal activities include self-study involving a number of different media (e.g., journals, trade books, Internet research), and experiential learning.
