Indigenous Peoples Thematic Series
Indigenous Language Families: Isolates and other Indigenous languages
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This report is a collaborative research project between Statistics Canada and the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. It is intended to provide a general overview on the vitality, acquisition and use of Indigenous languages that do not belong to any one Indigenous language family. For more information on the work of OCIL see Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages - Home.
End of text boxIsolates and other Indigenous languages
A language isolate refers to one with no known connection to any other language. Haida and Ktunaxa (Kutenai) are two such examples. The Haida language is spoken in British Columbia on Haida Gwaii Territory and is also spoken in Alaska.Note There are dialectal differences based on the communities that speak Haida but most speakers are able to communicate despite the subtle dialects.Note There are four First Nations communities that speak Ktunaxa (Kutenai): Yaqan Nukiy (Lower Kootenay Band), Yaq it ʔa·knuq ̓ ⱡi ’it (Tobacco Plains), ʔakisqnuk (Akisqnuk First Nation) and ʔaqam (St. Mary’s Indian Band).Note
Michif is a distinct language of the Métis that is not associated under any language families even though its genesis borrows from other languages. Michif has a complex language structure that borrows French nouns and adjectives and combine them with Cree verb structures, personal pronouns and syntax.Note In this way, it cannot be classified as either a language isolate or as belonging to a single language family. Furthermore, language experts point to the existence of three distinct Michif languages created by the Métis.Note While their names may vary, they are commonly referred to as Southern Michif (sometimes called Heritage Michif), Northern Michif (sometimes referred to as Michif-Cree or Cree Michif), and French Michif (also referred to as Michif French). On the 2021 Census of Population, write-in responses involving these names are released under the single name of Michif.
Within this report the following Indigenous languages are presented:
- Haida
- Ktunaxa (Kutenai)
- Michif
- Indigenous languages, not included elsewhere (n.i.e.)
- Indigenous languages, not otherwise specified (n.o.s.)
Knowledge and mother tongue
Michif, Haida and Ktunaxa (Kutenai) are all Indigenous languages that do not fit under the normal classification structure of any particular language family. Among these languages, Michif was the largest, with 1,900 people who spoke the language well enough to conduct a conversation and 1,010 people with Michif as their mother tongue.
Key concepts
Mother tongue – Refers to the first language learned in childhood that is still understood.
Knowledge – Refers to those who were able to speak a given language well enough to conduct a conversation.
Average age – Average age is a good indicator of the general health of a language. The average age of the mother tongue population is an indicator of the intergenerational transmission of an Indigenous language. A language with a young average age implies that children and young people are continuing to acquire an Indigenous language as their first language.
Indigenous language acquisition – This variable refers to how Indigenous language speakers learned the language they speak, whether as a mother tongue or as a second language.
Learned as a mother tongue – This group is comprised of those who reported an Indigenous mother tongue on the 2021 Census and who could still speak that same language well enough to conduct a conversation.
Learned as a second language – This group is comprised of those who could speak an Indigenous language, but who did not report that same language on the mother tongue question.
Second language index – The second language index is calculated by dividing the number of people who can speak an Indigenous language by the number who reported the same language as their mother tongue, expressed per 100 people. A value of 100 implies all speakers learned their language as a mother tongue, whereas more than 100 implies some speakers must have learned their language as a second language.
Silent speakers – This refers to people who have an Indigenous mother tongue, but—while they still understand it—can no longer speak the language well enough to conduct a conversation. In some circumstances, this may reflect those who have not continued to use their mother tongue over time or those who do not have a community of other speakers of the same language with whom to converse.
Home language – This refers to the extent to which respondents speak a given language at home.
Spoken most often at home – This refers to the language the person speaks most often at home at the time of data collection. A person can report more than one language as "spoken most often at home" if the languages are spoken equally often. In many circumstances, a language spoken most often at home could be thought to reflect the speaker’s “main” language.
Language(s) spoken regularly at home – This refers to the language(s), if any, that the person speaks at home on a regular basis at the time of data collection, other than the language(s) they speak most often at home.
Continuity index – This index measures language retention by dividing the number of people who speak a given language most often at home by the total number who have that same language as their mother tongue, expressed per 100 people.
Language of work – This refers to the extent to which respondents speak a given language at work, for the population aged 15 years and over, who worked since 2020. As with home language, it can be expressed as either the language used most often at work, or a language that is spoken regularly.
For more information on concepts from the 2021 Census of Population, see Dictionary, Census of Population, 2021 (statcan.gc.ca)
There were 245 people who could speak Haida well enough to conduct a conversation, and 105 who had Haida as their mother tongue. Ktunaxa (Kutenai) had a similar profile with 215 speakers and 60 with Ktunaxa (Kutenai) as their mother tongue.
There were a further 645 people who could speak an Indigenous language, not included elsewhere (n.i.e.)—referring to Indigenous languages with counts of speakers too low to be individually disseminated, which do not fit under any of the Indigenous language families. Finally, 855 people reported that they spoke an Indigenous language without specifying the name of that language.
Age is a useful indicator of the degree to which languages are transmitted from one generation to the next. A language with a younger age profile typically means that younger people continue to learn and speak the language at a rate commensurate with older generations. The average age of those who could speak Michif was 51 years, while the average age of those withMichif as their mother tongue was 60 years. For Haida, the average ages of the speaker population and mother tongue population were 43 years and 54 years; and for Ktunaxa (Kutenai) they were 36 years and 42 years.
As the Haida people have historically resided off the coast of British Columbia, the majority of Haida speakers lived in British Columbia, in 2021 (91.8%). An additional 6.1% of Haida speakers lived in Alberta. Similarly, 90.7% of those who spoke Ktunaxa (Kutenai) lived in British Columbia, while 9.3% lived in Alberta.
Michif speakers were spread across several Canadian provinces. Those who spoke Michif resided in Saskatchewan (44.9%), Manitoba (16.0%), Alberta (12.3%), British Columbia (12.3%) and Ontario (7.1%).
The highest share of those who spoke an Indigenous language not included elsewhere lived in British Columbia (55.0%), while others lived in Ontario (10.9%), Quebec (9.3%), the Northwest Territories (6.2%) and Manitoba (5.4%). Those who reported that they spoke an Indigenous language not otherwise specified were most likely to live in British Columbia (33.3%), Ontario (28.1%), Alberta (11.7%) and Quebec (11.1%).
Home use and second-language speakers
The extent to which people speak a language at home is an important indicator of language maintenance and its overall health. In 2021, 1,075 people spoke Michif at home. For the majority of this group (73.0%), Michif was spoken at home on a regular basis; while for the other 27.0% it was spoken most often at home. Haida was spoken at home by 155 people, and the majority of this group spoke it at home on a regular basis (93.5%), while the other 6.5% spoke it most often at home. Ktunaxa (Kutenai) was spoken at home by 130 people (88.5% regularly and 11.5% most often).
Data table for Chart 1
| Spoken most often at home | Spoken regularly at home | |
|---|---|---|
| percent | ||
| Notes: n.i.e. = not included elsewhere and n.o.s. = not otherwise specified.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||
| Ktunaxa (Kutenai) | 4.7 | 53.5 |
| Indigenous languages, n.i.e. | 9.3 | 16.3 |
| Indigenous languages, n.o.s. | 19.9 | 22.2 |
| Haida | 4.1 | 61.2 |
| Michif | 16.8 | 45.0 |
In 2021, most speakers of Michif, Haida and Ktunaxa (Kutenai) learned their language as a second language. These figures are presented in Chart 2, below.
Data table for Chart 2
| Second language | |
|---|---|
| percent | |
| Notes: n.i.e. = not included elsewhere and n.o.s. = not otherwise specified.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
|
| Ktunaxa (Kutenai) | 83.7 |
| Indigenous languages, n.i.e. | 82.2 |
| Indigenous languages, n.o.s. | 65.5 |
| Haida | 65.3 |
| Michif | 56.2 |
In general, those who learn their language as a mother tongue are more likely to use it at home than those who have acquired it as a second language. Home use among second-language speakers is an important indicator of revitalization, in relation to restoring the intergenerational transmission of Indigenous languages. Among those who learned Haida as their mother tongue, 41.2% spoke the language at home (11.8% most often and 35.3% on a regular basis). Among second-language speakers, 69.7% spoke the language at home (.0% most often and 69.7% on a regular basis).
For those who learned Ktunaxa (Kutenai) as their mother tongue, 57.1% spoke the language at home (28.6% most often and 42.9% on a regular basis). Among second-language speakers, 58.3% spoke the language at home (5.6% most often and 55.6% on a regular basis).
Finally, among those who learned Michif as their mother tongue, 73.7% spoke the language at home (29.9% most often and 43.1% on a regular basis). Among second-language speakers, 52.6% spoke the language at home (6.6% most often and 46.5% on a regular basis).
Silent speakers
The First Peoples’ Cultural Council (FPCC) defines silent speakers as “…people who have a good understanding of their language but do not speak it. There are many kinds of silent speakers, including people who spoke their language before attending residential school or people who grew up hearing their language and understand it, but do not speak it.”Note This indicator is useful in the work toward the reclamation and recovery of Indigenous languages.
For the purposes of this study, “silent speakers” are classified as those who had an Indigenous mother tongue, but can no longer speak that same language well enough to conduct a conversation. In 2021, there were 255 silent speakers of Michif, 30 of Haida and 20 of Ktunaxa (Kutenai).
Language of work
The Census of Population also collects information on the languages that people use most often at work. Among all employed persons, aged 15 years and over, who could speak Michif, 6.0% reported that it was the language they used most often at work. Another 12.6% said that they spoke Michif at work on a regular basis. For Haida, 20.0% said that they spoke their language at work on a regular basis. For Ktunaxa (Kutenai), 16.7% spoke their language at work on a regular basis.
Language-specific vitality summary
The following is a summary of the vitality of each of the languages discussed in this report, using the indicators of knowledge, mother tongue, the average ages of those with a mother tongue, second language speakers and silent speakers, the share of speakers who learned their language as a mother tongue and the proportion of those who speak their language most often or regularly at home. Together these are important indicators of language maintenance and revitalization.
Ktunaxa (Kutenai) had 215 speakers. There were 60 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 42 years, the average age of second language speakers was 33 years and the average age of silent speakers was 26 years. A minority (16.3%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 7.7% spoke it most often and 88.5% spoke it regularly.
Haida had 245 speakers. There were 105 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 54 years, the average age of second language speakers was 38 years and the average age of silent speakers was 56 years. Just over one third (34.7%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 6.5% spoke it most often and 96.8% spoke it regularly.
Michif had 1,900 speakers. There were 1,010 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 60 years, the average age of second language speakers was 44 years and the average age of silent speakers was 62 years. More than four-in-ten (43.9%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 27.2% spoke it most often and 72.8% spoke it regularly.
About this report
This report is based on data from the 2021 Census of Population long-form questionnaire, which collected information for the population in private households. To ensure the confidentiality of responses collected for the census, a random rounding process is used to alter the values reported in individual cells. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.
Because of random rounding, counts and percentages may vary slightly between different census products such as the analytical documents, highlight tables and data tables. While the effect of random rounding is generally negligible it may have a greater effect on certain populations, such as languages with smaller numbers of speakers.
Furthermore, languages with low numbers of speakers are suppressed to protect the confidentiality of respondents to the census questionnaire. As a result, these languages are collectively disseminated through the label of languages “not included elsewhere (n.i.e.)”.
Self-reporting of language data
Like all items on the census questionnaire, the language questions on the 2021 Census of Population are based on self-reporting. Therefore, responses to indicators—such as the ability to speak a language well enough to conduct a conversation—may vary depending upon the respondent, even among those with similar linguistic backgrounds. The issue of self-reporting also intersects with the fact that some respondents report the language(s) they speak within broad categories, while others report more specifically.
For more information language concepts, see Languages Reference Guide, Census of Population, 2021 (statcan.gc.ca)
Incomplete enumeration
During the 2021 Census of Population, 63 census subdivisions defined as reserves and settlements were incompletely enumerated. For these reserves and settlements, enumeration either was not permitted or could not be completed for various reasons, such as evacuations because of forest fires or access restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Counts of speakers for some languages were more impacted by incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements than others. For example, the Tsuu T’ina language and Iroquoian languages, such as Mohawk and Cayuga, are undercounted as reserves and settlements associated with these languages did not participate in the census. Regionally, other languages may be more impacted than others.
For more information on incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements, see Appendix 1.5 – Incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements in the Guide to the Census of Population, 2021.
| Number | Percent | Average age | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
|||
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 1,900 | ... not applicable | 51 |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 1,010 | ... not applicable | 60 |
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 1,900 | 100.0 | 51 |
| Learned Indigenous language as mother tongue and still speak the language | 835 | 43.9 | 60 |
| Learned Indigenous language as second language | 1,065 | 56.1 | 44 |
| Second language index | … | 188 | ... not applicable |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 1,010 | 100.0 | 60 |
| Can still speak Indigenous mother tongue | 755 | 74.8 | 60 |
| Silent speakers (mother tongue but can no longer speak) | 255 | 25.2 | 62 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home | 1,075 | 100.0 | 49 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at home | 290 | 27.0 | 58 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home on a regular basis | 785 | 73.0 | 46 |
| Continuity index (includes only language spoken most often at home) | … | 29 | ... not applicable |
| Employed speakers aged 15 years and over | 835 | 100.0 | 49 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at work | 50 | 6.0 | 56 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at work on a regular basis | 105 | 12.6 | 54 |
| Does not speak Indigenous language at work | 680 | 81.4 | 48 |
| Number | Percent | Average age | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
|||
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 245 | ... not applicable | 43 |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 105 | ... not applicable | 54 |
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 245 | 100.0 | 43 |
| Learned Indigenous language as mother tongue and still speak the language | 85 | 34.7 | 53 |
| Learned Indigenous language as second language | 165 | 67.3 | 38 |
| Second language index | ... not applicable | 233 | ... not applicable |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 105 | 100.0 | 54 |
| Can still speak Indigenous mother tongue | 75 | 71.4 | 54 |
| Silent speakers (mother tongue but can no longer speak) | 30 | 28.6 | 56 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home | 155 | 100.0 | 40 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at home | 10 | 6.5 | 60 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home on a regular basis | 145 | 93.5 | 38 |
| Continuity index (includes only language spoken most often at home) | ... not applicable | 10 | ... not applicable |
| Employed speakers aged 15 years and over | 125 | 100.0 | 45 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at work | 0 | 0.0 | ... not applicable |
| Speaks Indigenous language at work on a regular basis | 25 | 20.0 | 40 |
| Does not speak Indigenous language at work | 100 | 80.0 | 45 |
| Number | Percent | Average age | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
|||
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 215 | ... not applicable | 36 |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 60 | ... not applicable | 42 |
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 215 | 100.0 | 36 |
| Learned Indigenous language as mother tongue and still speak the language | 35 | 16.3 | 50 |
| Learned Indigenous language as second language | 180 | 83.7 | 33 |
| Second language index | ... not applicable | 358 | ... not applicable |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 60 | 100.0 | 42 |
| Can still speak Indigenous mother tongue | 40 | 66.7 | 50 |
| Silent speakers (mother tongue but can no longer speak) | 20 | 33.3 | 26 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home | 130 | 100.0 | 34 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at home | 15 | 11.5 | 48 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home on a regular basis | 115 | 88.5 | 32 |
| Continuity index (includes only language spoken most often at home) | ... not applicable | 25 | ... not applicable |
| Employed speakers aged 15 years and over | 90 | 100.0 | 38 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at work | 0 | 0.0 | ... not applicable |
| Speaks Indigenous language at work on a regular basis | 15 | 16.7 | 44 |
| Does not speak Indigenous language at work | 65 | 72.2 | 38 |
Data table for Map 1
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 55 | 5 |
Data table for Map 2
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 65 | 6 |
Data table for Map 3
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 48 |
| 101 - 310 | 1 |
Data table for Map 4
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 35 | 28 |
Data table for Map 5
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 30 | 37 |
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