Economic and Social Reports
Differences in living arrangements of older seniors by mother tongue

Release date: May 26, 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.25318/36280001202100500003-eng

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Abstract

This article provides an overview of the living arrangements of Canadians aged 75 and older across mother tongue groups. Analysis is based on the 2016 Census of Population short-form questionnaire and includes older seniors in both private and collective residences. Among the 2.5 million Canadians aged 75 and older in 2016, 15% lived in collective dwellings, 43% lived with a spouse but not in a multigenerational household, 6% lived in a multigenerational household, 8% lived with other family or non-family individuals, and 28% lived alone. This pattern of living arrangements varied considerably across mother tongue groups. In particular, the share of seniors aged 75 and older living in a multigenerational household ranged from 2% to 68%, while the share living in collective dwellings ranged from 3% to 22%. Among older seniors living in collective dwellings (nursing homes and seniors’ residences), there were large group differences in official language ability and income.

Authors

Feng Hou is with the Social Analysis and Modelling Division, Analytical Studies Branch at Statistics Canada.

Anh Ngo is with the Faculty of Social Work, Wilfrid Laurier University.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Nora Galbraith, René Houle, Anne Milan, Margaret Penning and Grant Schellenberg for their advice and comments on an earlier version of this paper.

Introduction

Canada’s senior population is becoming more diverse, ethnically and linguistically. Among individuals aged 75 and older in 2016, 34% were foreign-born and 27% had a mother tongue other than English or French, compared with 29% and 21%, respectively, in 1991.Note  There is a pressing need for a better understanding of the living arrangements of immigrant and ethnic minority seniors in response to shifting demographics.

One issue specific to the living arrangements of older seniors is access to nursing homes and seniors’ residences. Um (2016) examined provincial government data on wait times for long-term care facilities and found that seniors with the lowest income, and those from ethnically and linguistically diverse populations were among those who waited the longest for their site of choice. For low-income seniors, the wait time for basic accommodation was nearly three months longer than that of those seeking more costly semi-private or private accommodation. Seniors who applied for ethno-specific long-term care homes waited nearly six months longer than those who applied for mainstream homes (Um 2016). Furthermore, older immigrants may face more difficulties with mainstream aging services than Canadian-born seniors, in part because of cultural barriers, cost of personal care and language accessibility to health care practitioners (Asanin and Wilson 2008; Um 2016).

Some immigrant seniors reside in multigenerational homes with their kin out of necessity or because of cultural preferences, particularly those who immigrated as sponsored parents or grandparents (Gubernskaya and Tang 2017). More attention is needed on the sustainability of these arrangements. For example, Um and Lightman (2017) found that immigrants were more than twice as likely to indicate that they had unmet needs for home care services, compared with Canadian-born seniors. Relative to Canadian-born family caregivers of seniors, there is an added burden on immigrant families in caring for their aging relatives: “Family caregivers often suffer from burnout in their efforts to provide care to their senior family members while they themselves struggle to ‘make it’ in a new country” (Luhtanen 2009, 18). At the same time, multigenerational living is highly valued in some immigrant groups. It has rewarding consequences, such as providing a positive influence on the younger generation; providing childcare; having family nearby; and passing on cultural traditions, which are very important to many immigrant seniors (Johnson et al. 2019; Sadarangani and Jun 2015).

Knowledge gaps in the living arrangements of seniors with diverse linguistic backgrounds can be filled, in part, with information collected in the 2016 Census of Population short-form questionnaire, which covered the entire population of Canada, including residents in collective dwellings. It collected information on age, sex, relationships between household members, knowledge of Canada’s official languages, language spoken at home, and mother tongue. Income data were also obtained from personal income tax and benefits files (Statistics Canada 2018). While some measures of social diversity are not available in the short-form census, such as immigration status, ethnic origins and visible minority status, mother tongue can be used to identify diverse population groups. In the census, mother tongue refers to the first language an individual learned at home in childhood that is still understood at the time of census data collection. Based on information about immigration status collected in the long-form census (which was not collected for residents in collective dwellings), about 87% of seniors aged 75 years and older whose mother tongue was neither English nor French were immigrants.  

This article provides an overview of living arrangements among seniors aged 75 and olderNote  in diverse linguistic groups, with a focus on those living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences. The analysis first describes the shares of seniors aged 75 and older living in private households and in collective dwellings,Note  by mother tongue. Then, the analysis further distinguishes between types of households for these seniors living in private households, and types of facilities for those living in collective dwellings. Finally, the article presents the sociodemographic characteristics of those living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences.

Large group differences in the share of older seniors living in multigenerational households and collective dwellings

In 2016, there were over 2.5 million Canadians aged 75 and older, accounting for 7.2% of the national population. These seniors spoke over 200 different mother tongues between them, and about 25% spoke a mother tongue other than English or French. To ensure reliable estimates, this article focuses on 30 large mother tongue groups among seniors aged 75 and older (Table 1). To provide a more complete picture, the appendix provides statistics on living arrangements according to language families—a higher level of aggregation of world languages.

Living arrangements among seniors aged 75 and older varied considerably among the major mother tongue groups (Table 1). In all groups, the vast majority lived in private households. Among those living in private households, groups differed greatly regarding the likelihood of living in multigenerational households that included their adult children and grandchildren (Chart 1). About two-thirds of those with Punjabi as their mother tongue lived in multigenerational households. This was in sharp contrast with less than 5% of seniors in some groups with European-origin mother tongues. Other groups with a high prevalence of multigenerational co-residence included those who reported Tamil and Urdu (over 50%), Mandarin, Tagalog, Gujarati, Hindi, and Vietnamese mother tongues. These groups consist mostly of immigrants from Southern, Eastern and Southeastern Asia.

Chart 1 Percentage of seniors aged 75 and older residing in selected household types, by mother tongue, Canada, 2016

Data table for Chart 1 
Data table for Chart 1
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 1. The information is grouped by Mother tongue group (appearing as row headers), Live alone and Multigenerational household, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).
Mother tongue group Live alone Multigenerational household
percent
Punjabi (Panjabi) 3.5 67.6
Tamil 7.5 55.5
Urdu 6.2 52.8
Mandarin 8.9 39.7
Tagalog (Filipino) 9.8 39.6
Gujarati 12.5 37.6
Hindi 11.3 37.1
Vietnamese 9.6 36.9
Cantonese 15.3 24.4
Persian 15.7 23.5
Arabic 17.0 20.7
Romanian 24.1 20.0
Spanish 21.3 19.2
Chinese, other 13.4 17.7
Others 24.1 15.4
Russian 30.1 14.5
Korean 17.3 13.7
Portuguese 19.0 12.7
Greek 19.5 7.9
Polish 35.1 6.2
Croatian 26.7 6.1
All 27.7 5.9
Japanese 24.5 5.8
Italian 24.6 5.4
Hungarian 34.3 3.2
English 29.5 3.1
Finnish 31.2 2.8
Ukrainian 37.3 2.3
Danish 32.0 2.3
German 31.3 2.0
Dutch 28.8 1.9
French 28.8 1.8

Related to the group differences in multigenerational co-residence, seniors in some European-origin groups were much more likely to live alone than their counterparts in some Asian mother tongue groups (Chart 1). Over 30% of seniors in seven European-origin groups lived alone, compared with less than 10% of seniors in five Asian-origin groups.

Furthermore, some groups were much less likely to live in collective dwellings than others. The share living in collective dwellings was as low as 3% for seniors aged 75 and older whose mother tongues were Punjabi or Gujarati—two Indo-Aryan languages spoken by some Southern Asian immigrants (Table 1 and Chart 2). At the upper end, 16% of those with English as their mother tongue and 22% of those with French as their mother tongue were living in collective dwellings.

Some of these group differences were related to differences in age, income, province of residence and ability to speak an official language. For example, about 43% of those with Punjabi as their mother tongue and 69% of those with Gujarati as their mother tongue did not speak either official language. Both groups were about one year younger, on average, than those with English as a mother tongue. Multivariate analyses (table not shown) revealed that being able to speak an official language and older age were associated with a higher likelihood of living in collective dwellings. Those with moderate annual personal incomes ($10,000 to $50,000) were more likely to live in collective dwellings than those with lower or higher incomes. Residents of Quebec (21.2%), Alberta (18.5%) and Manitoba (17.2%) had higher rates of living in collective dwellings than those in other provinces (Chart 3). Group differences in these characteristics together accounted for about 40% to 45% of differences in the rate of living in collective dwellings between older seniors reporting Punjabi or Gujarati mother tongues and those with English as their mother tongue. Other possible factors affecting group differences in the likelihood of living in collective dwellings, including immigration status, are not available for this analysis.

Chart 2 Percentage of seniors aged 75 and older residing in collective dwellings, by mother tongue, Canada, 2016

Data table for Chart 2 
Data table for Chart 2
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 2. The information is grouped by Mother tongue group (appearing as row headers), Percent (appearing as column headers).
Mother tongue group Percent
French 22.3
English 15.5
All 15.3
Finnish 14.0
Chinese, other 12.6
Polish 12.2
Ukrainian 11.3
Korean 10.7
Japanese 10.7
German 10.6
Dutch 10.4
Spanish 10.1
Mandarin 9.3
Vietnamese 8.7
Danish 8.7
Portuguese 8.2
Others 8.0
Tagalog (Filipino) 7.7
Arabic 7.7
Romanian 7.5
Russian 7.4
Hungarian 7.2
Italian 7.0
Croatian 6.8
Cantonese 6.4
Greek 6.4
Hindi 6.3
Tamil 5.3
Persian 4.8
Urdu 4.8
Punjabi (Panjabi) 3.2
Gujarati 3.2

Chart 3 Percentage of seniors aged 75 and older residing in collective dwellings, by region of residence, Canada, 2016

Data table for Chart 3 
Data table for Chart 3
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 3 . The information is grouped by Region of residence (appearing as row headers), Percent (appearing as column headers).
Region of residence Percent
Canada 15.3
Newfoundland and
Labrador
12.7
Prince
Edward
Island
14.2
Nova
Scotia
11.3
New
Brunswick
14.0
Quebec 21.2
Ontario 12.2
Manitoba 17.2
Saskatchewan 15.8
Alberta 18.5
British
Columbia
12.6

Table 1
Living arrangements of seniors aged 75 and older, by major mother tongue group
Table summary
This table displays the results of Living arrangements of seniors aged 75 and older. The information is grouped by Group (appearing as row headers), Population, Private dwellings, Collective dwellings, Live alone, With spouse, not in multi-generational household, In multi-generational household and With others, calculated using number and percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).
Group Population Private dwellings Collective dwellings
Live alone With spouse, not in multi-generational household In multi-generational household With others
number percent
All 2,542,280 27.7 43.2 5.9 7.9 15.3
English 1,298,900 29.5 44.3 3.1 7.6 15.5
French 604,690 28.8 39.9 1.8 7.2 22.3
Italian 96,630 24.6 53.7 5.4 9.3 7.0
German 91,550 31.3 50.0 2.0 6.1 10.6
Cantonese 57,170 15.3 41.6 24.4 12.4 6.4
Dutch 31,140 28.8 54.0 1.9 4.8 10.4
Ukrainian 31,080 37.3 41.0 2.3 8.2 11.3
Punjabi (Panjabi) 27,310 3.5 19.1 67.6 6.5 3.2
Portuguese 22,450 19.0 49.4 12.7 10.7 8.2
Greek 21,540 19.5 55.7 7.9 10.5 6.4
Mandarin 19,500 8.9 33.9 39.7 8.2 9.3
Polish 19,400 35.1 36.5 6.2 10.1 12.2
Hungarian 14,970 34.3 47.2 3.2 8.0 7.2
Spanish 14,770 21.3 37.3 19.2 12.1 10.1
Tagalog (Filipino) 14,390 9.8 29.3 39.6 13.5 7.7
Chinese, other 13,080 13.4 44.3 17.7 12.0 12.6
Arabic 12,950 17.0 43.1 20.7 11.4 7.7
Russian 11,410 30.1 39.7 14.5 8.3 7.4
Croatian 8,050 26.7 51.4 6.1 9.0 6.8
Vietnamese 7,110 9.6 29.8 36.9 15.0 8.7
Tamil 6,800 7.5 23.4 55.5 8.4 5.3
Gujarati 6,770 12.5 37.5 37.6 9.2 3.2
Persian (Farsi) 6,760 15.7 42.8 23.5 13.3 4.8
Korean 6,220 17.3 52.0 13.7 6.4 10.7
Hindi 4,920 11.3 37.6 37.1 7.8 6.3
Urdu 4,610 6.2 29.4 52.8 6.8 4.8
Romanian 4,480 24.1 38.6 20.0 9.8 7.5
Japanese 4,450 24.5 47.8 5.8 11.1 10.7
Finnish 4,340 31.2 44.2 2.8 7.9 14.0
Danish 4,330 32.0 50.9 2.3 6.1 8.7

Nursing homes and seniors’ residences were the main residential facilities among seniors living in collective dwellings

Among all senior residents in collective dwellings, 92% lived in nursing homes, seniors’ residences, or a mix of the two types (Table 2). Nursing homes are long-term care facilities that provide a range of health care services. This includes professional health monitoring, and skilled nursing care and supervision 24 hours per day for people who are not independent in most activities of daily living. Seniors’ residences provide support or assisted-living services (such as meals, housekeeping, medication supervision and assistance in personal hygiene care) and supervision, but no extended health care services for residents who are independent in most activities of daily living. Some facilities are both a nursing home and a seniors’ residence that extends health care services to some residents, but only support services or assisted-living services to other residents (Statistics Canada 2017). In addition to nursing homes and seniors’ residences, 2% of seniors lived in religious establishments, 1.6% stayed in hospitals that provide short- and long-term care, and 1.5% stayed in residential care facilities, such as group homes for persons with disabilities or addictions. The remainder were housed in correctional or custodial facilities, shelters, rooming houses and other forms of accommodation.

Over one in three adults (35.6%) aged 75 and older living in collective dwellings were residents of nursing homes, with a slightly larger proportion living in seniors’ residences (37.4%). Among seniors living in these types of collective dwellings, nursing homes tended to be more prevalent for most mother tongue groups. In particular, seniors with Urdu or Punjabi mother tongues were at least three times more likely to live in nursing homes than in seniors’ residences. Seniors with Mandarin, Hindi, Vietnamese, Croatian or Portuguese mother tongues were twice as likely to live in nursing homes than in seniors’ residences. By comparison, those with French, Ukrainian or Romanian mother tongues were more likely to live in seniors’ residences than in nursing homes.


Table 2
Types of collective dwelling among senior residents aged 75 and older, by major mother tongue group
Table summary
This table displays the results of Types of collective dwelling among senior residents aged 75 and older. The information is grouped by Group (appearing as row headers), Population, Nursing homes, Seniors' residences, Mixed nursing homes and seniors' residences and Other facilities , calculated using number and percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).
Group Population Nursing homes Seniors' residences Mixed nursing homes and seniors' residences Other facilities
number percent
All 389,610 35.6 37.4 19.1 7.9
English 201,870 39.8 32.3 21.0 6.9
French 134,720 25.7 48.3 16.6 9.4
Italian 6,760 49.8 26.0 20.7 3.5
German 9,690 34.1 30.6 18.8 16.5
Cantonese 3,650 51.8 28.1 15.4 4.7
Dutch 3,220 38.8 29.3 25.2 6.7
Ukrainian 3,510 34.9 42.1 17.5 5.6
Punjabi (Panjabi) 890 58.1 16.1 13.4 12.3
Portuguese 1,830 54.2 24.6 15.0 6.1
Greek 1,390 45.7 30.4 18.3 5.5
Mandarin 1,810 60.9 22.4 12.2 4.5
Polish 2,360 41.8 27.9 23.2 7.1
Hungarian 1,080 45.2 31.4 16.8 6.5
Spanish 1,500 48.2 26.4 13.2 12.2
Tagalog (Filipino) 1,120 44.7 24.1 23.9 7.4
Chinese, other 1,640 54.3 32.1 6.6 7.0
Arabic 1,000 45.1 28.4 18.4 8.1
Russian 850 46.8 25.0 23.6 4.6
Croatian 550 58.9 25.4 11.9 3.9
Vietnamese 620 52.9 23.5 17.6 6.0
Tamil 360 42.5 39.7 14.2 3.7
Gujarati 220 46.8 32.6 9.6 11.0
Persian (Farsi) 320 52.2 21.1 19.3 7.5
Korean 660 50.7 31.2 10.0 8.1
Hindi 310 51.5 20.4 16.8 11.4
Urdu 220 57.4 11.2 24.7 6.7
Romanian 340 36.5 40.7 17.2 5.6
Japanese 480 49.5 31.2 14.1 5.3
Finnish 610 38.9 25.5 33.4 2.2
Danish 380 33.0 31.4 27.7 8.0

Sociodemographic characteristics among senior residents in nursing homes and seniors’ residences varied considerably across mother tongue groups

About 65% of seniors living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences were aged 85 and older (Table 3), compared with 24% of seniors living in private households (table not presented). Since women dominate in the oldest age groups, seniors living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences were much more likely to be women (72%) than seniors living in private households (58%). Seniors living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences were less likely to be married or in a common-law union (24%) than their counterparts living in private households (54%).

Across mother tongue groups, seniors living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences differed in age, sex and marital status. The group with Japanese as their mother tongue had both the highest share aged 85 and older (73%) and the highest share of women (77%). The group with Tamil as their mother tongue had the smallest share aged 85 and older (47%) and, perhaps as a result, the highest share who were married or in a common-law union (37%).

Some mother tongue groups had a very low share who were able to speak an official language. In particular, less than half of senior residents in nursing homes and seniors’ residences with Cantonese or other Chinese (except Mandarin) mother tongues were able to speak an official language well enough to conduct a conversation. In seven Asian language groups, between 30% and 40% of senior residents could not converse in either official language.

Income was another characteristic that differentiated the mother tongue groups of seniors living in nursing homes and seniors’ residences. Overall, the median annual income among senior residents in nursing homes and seniors’ residences was $24,400 (in 2015 dollars). Groups with Japanese or English mother tongues had the highest median incomes, $27,600 and $26,700, respectively. In five groups, the median income was below $20,000. In particular, groups with Tamil, Cantonese or other Chinese mother tongues had median incomes of about one-third less than that of the group with English as their mother tongue. 


Table 3
Sociodemographic characteristics of senior residents in nursing homes and seniors' residences, aged 75 and older
Table summary
This table displays the results of Sociodemographic characteristics of senior residents in nursing homes and seniors' residences. The information is grouped by Group (appearing as row headers), Population, Aged 85 and older, Female, Married or common-law, Speaking an official language and Median income, calculated using number, percent and 2015 dollars units of measure (appearing as column headers).
Group Population Aged 85 and older Female Married or common-law Speaking an official language Median income
number percent 2015 dollars
All 358,780 64.5 71.6 24.3 97.6 24,400
English 188,030 67.8 71.9 23.3 100.0 26,700
French 122,040 58.4 71.7 25.6 100.0 22,200
Italian 6,520 65.8 67.5 26.5 82.8 25,400
German 8,090 69.0 68.6 26.8 97.7 26,400
Cantonese 3,480 68.4 71.1 30.6 44.3 18,000
Dutch 3,010 70.8 68.8 27.5 99.2 26,300
Ukrainian 3,320 69.2 73.7 19.8 95.5 25,100
Punjabi (Panjabi) 780 65.1 69.2 25.1 66.8 22,200
Portuguese 1,720 60.4 71.0 27.4 74.2 23,000
Greek 1,310 64.2 69.8 23.9 79.4 23,400
Mandarin 1,730 68.6 69.3 27.3 59.8 20,300
Polish 2,190 70.9 73.9 19.2 90.0 24,600
Hungarian 1,010 70.9 66.9 24.3 92.8 26,400
Spanish 1,310 61.4 71.0 21.5 84.5 22,400
Tagalog (Filipino) 1,030 62.6 72.2 23.7 85.3 22,600
Chinese, other 1,530 68.7 71.5 27.6 41.8 18,100
Arabic 920 63.6 71.4 23.8 84.6 22,800
Russian 810 67.5 74.5 21.3 85.2 20,700
Croatian 530 62.6 67.4 20.7 84.3 24,900
Vietnamese 580 64.8 72.7 25.6 65.7 19,800
Tamil 350 46.7 67.2 37.1 63.2 17,700
Gujarati 190 61.9 67.0 20.1 69.1 22,200
Persian (Farsi) 300 65.4 68.8 25.8 69.8 18,900
Korean 610 71.3 72.9 22.7 69.0 20,400
Hindi 270 59.1 63.9 27.7 83.2 21,400
Urdu 210 67.8 68.8 21.2 79.8 24,900
Romanian 320 68.2 71.1 21.7 87.4 22,400
Japanese 450 72.7 76.7 21.3 86.2 27,600
Finnish 590 65.5 72.9 23.2 95.6 25,600
Danish 350 68.5 62.4 22.8 98.6 26,400

Summary

This article presented a broad picture of the living arrangements among seniors aged 75 and older and examined the differences across large mother tongue groups. The analysis was based on data from the 2016 Census of Population short-form questionnaire. Among the 2.5 million individuals aged 75 and older, 15% lived in a collective dwelling, 43% lived with a spouse but not in a multigenerational household, 6% resided in a multigenerational household, 8% lived with other family or non-family individuals, and 28% lived alone.

The pattern of living arrangements varied considerably across large mother tongue groups. Over one-half of seniors with Punjabi, Tamil or Urdu mother tongues lived in multigenerational households, compared with less than 5% of seniors in some groups with European-origin mother tongues. The share of seniors living in collective dwellings ranged from 3% for groups with Punjabi or Gujarati mother tongues to 16% among the group with English as their mother tongue, and 22% among those with French as their mother tongue. These group differences in living arrangements were partly related to differences in income, age, official language ability and province of residence.

Among all senior residents in collective dwellings, 92% lived in nursing homes, seniors’ residences, or in a mix of the two types. Across mother tongue groups, senior residents in nursing homes and seniors’ residences differed in some sociodemographic characteristics. In nine large Asian language groups, between 30% and 50% of senior residents could not speak an official language well enough to conduct a conversation. Furthermore, in five groups, the median annual income of senior residents was 26% to 34% lower than that of senior residents with English as their mother tongue.


Appendix Table 1
Living arrangements of seniors aged 75 and older, by language family of mother tongue, among individuals with a mother tongue other than English or French
Table summary
This table displays the results of Living arrangements of seniors aged 75 and older. The information is grouped by Language families (appearing as row headers), Population, Private dwellings, Collective dwellings, Live alone, With spouse, not in multi-generational household, In multi-generational household and With others, calculated using number and percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).
Language families Population Private dwellings Collective dwellings
Live alone With spouse, not in multi-generational household In multi-generational household With others
number percent
Aboriginal languages 8,440 21.8 26.6 17.6 23.3 10.7
Afro-Asiatic languages 17,530 18.0 42.7 19.7 12.3 7.2
Austro-Asiatic languages 7,800 9.4 29.6 37.9 14.9 8.3
Austronesian languages 17,590 9.6 29.5 39.7 13.7 7.4
Creole languages 4,240 18.7 23.8 31.4 15.3 10.8
Dravidian languages 8,140 8.0 28.8 49.8 8.0 5.4
European languages 394,680 28.0 48.9 5.8 8.3 9.0
Indo-Iranian languages 55,160 7.8 28.8 51.4 8.1 3.9
Japanese 4,450 24.5 47.8 5.8 11.1 10.7
Korean 6,220 17.3 52.0 13.7 6.4 10.7
Niger-Congo languages 980 15.9 30.9 25.4 10.3 17.4
Sino-Tibetan languages 90,190 13.6 40.3 26.8 11.4 7.9
Tai-Kadai languages 550 8.2 30.3 40.4 16.1 5.1
Turkic languages 1,350 19.0 45.5 17.3 12.2 6.0
Uralic languages 20,910 33.9 45.9 3.1 8.0 9.0

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