Juristat Bulletin—Quick Fact
Trafficking in persons in Canada, 2016
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By Dyna Ibrahim
Trafficking in persons, also known as ‘human trafficking’, is a criminal offence under the Criminal Code and the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. It is a serious violation of an individuals’ human rights, and an issue which affects almost every country in the world (UN 2014; UNODC 2016; Public Safety Canada 2012). Some have referred to human trafficking as a form of ‘modern slavery’ (Crane 2013; Public Safety Canada 2012; Kara 2009; Barrows and Finger 2008). In recent years, Canada has implemented various programs in an effort to fight trafficking in persons domestically, as well as internationally (Public Safety Canada 2012).
By its very nature, trafficking in persons is difficult to measure. Statistics Canada, through the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey, collects information on incidents of human trafficking violations which come to the attention of Canadian police. These are Criminal Code offences and an offence under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which targets cross-border trafficking.
In this Juristat Bulletin—Quick Fact, data from the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey are used to present an analysis of the prevalence of human trafficking in Canada and highlight victim and accused characteristics. This article also examines court outcomes for human trafficking offences through data collected by the Integrated Criminal Court Survey. In this article, “trafficking in persons” and “human trafficking” are used interchangeably.
Trafficking in persons is prohibited under the Criminal Code, and involves recruiting, transporting, transferring, receiving, holding, concealing or harbouring a person, or exercising control, direction or influence over the movements of a person, for the purpose of exploiting them or facilitating their exploitation. Trafficking in persons can take many forms including sexual exploitation and forced labour (UNODC 2016; Karam 2016).
Trafficking in persons is often confused with human smuggling. Human smuggling involves the illegal migration of an individual, for profit and with the individual’s consent. Additionally, human smuggling is transnational, and it ends with the arrival of the migrant at their destination (Public Safety Canada 2012).
Human smuggling often involves migrants fleeing difficult or conflict situations putting them at greater risk for exploitation (UNODC 2016). Human smuggling can sometimes become a case of human trafficking. Below, is a simplified example illustrating such a possible scenario.
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Example:
Two individuals agree on a transaction whereby an individual (a smuggler) agrees to transport an undocumented other individual (migrant) across a country’s international border. Upon arrival at the destination, the migrant pays the smuggler for the service and the two go their separate ways. This is an example of human smuggling.
Although during smuggling migrants may be subjected to difficult circumstances or be mistreated, if they are exploited on the way to or upon arrival at the destination country by means such as coercion into forced labour, for example to pay for their smuggling fee, or by being forced into sex trade and prevented from leaving, the situation becomes human trafficking.
Number of police-reported incidents of human trafficking on the rise
- Criminal incidents that are reported by police can involve more than one violation.Note In 2016, Canadian police services reported 340 incidents of human trafficking where it was the most serious violation.Note This represented 0.02% of all police-reported incidents in 2016. There was nearly one (0.94) police-reported incident of human trafficking for every 100,000 population—the highest rate recorded since comparable data became available in 2009.
- Between 2009 and 2016, there were a total of 1,220 police-reported incidents of human trafficking where it was the most serious violation.Note The number and rate of human trafficking incidents have steadily increased since 2010 (Chart 1).
Data table for Chart 1
| Year | Number of incidents | Rate per 100,000 population |
|---|---|---|
| 2009 | 41 | 0.12 |
| 2010 | 26 | 0.08 |
| 2011 | 76 | 0.22 |
| 2012 | 92 | 0.26 |
| 2013 | 115 | 0.33 |
| 2014 | 200 | 0.56 |
| 2015 | 330 | 0.92 |
| 2016 | 340 | 0.94 |
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Note: The Criminal Code offences which comprise the category of human trafficking in the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey include: trafficking in persons (CCCs. 279.01); trafficking in persons under 18 (CCCs. 279.011); material benefit (CCCs. 279.02); material benefit from trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.02(2)); withholding or destroying documents (CCCs. 279.03); and withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.03(2)). In addition, an offence in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which targets international cross-border trafficking (section 118) is included. This analysis is based on aggregate data, and counts are based on the most serious violation in the incident. Rates are calculated on the basis of 100,000 population. Populations are based upon July 1st estimates from Statistics Canada, Demography Division. Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Uniform Crime Reporting Survey. |
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Human trafficking is difficult to measure, due in part to its hidden nature. While there has been an increase in the number of human trafficking incidents reported by police in recent years, human trafficking remains highly underreported for reasons such as:
- Victims are usually in a physically, socially, or economically vulnerable position, making them unwilling or unable to report to police.
- Traffickers sometimes deliberately implicate victims in humiliating or illegal activities to keep them from reporting; for example, humiliating sexual acts, use of illicit substances and fear of exposure to family members or authorities.
- Physical force or psychological techniques are used to intimidate victims; for example, increasing a victim’s sense of isolation and dependence by removal of forms of identification or threatening of family members.
- Some victims distrust police; for some victims, police in their native countries may have returned them to the traffickers, potentially leading to severe repercussions from the trafficker. Victims with such experiences or beliefs may mistrust Canadian authorities, as well.
- Victims may have language barriers or may be unaware of their legal rights.
(UNODC 2017; Hodge 2014; Winterdyk and Reichel 2010; UN 2008)
According to research, increases in reporting of human trafficking incidents may be an indication of efforts and resources put into the investigation of these offences (UN 2008). Therefore, it is not clear whether the increase in the number of incidents reported are true increases in the crime or more of a reflection of police services becoming better equipped to detect, report and investigate human trafficking.
One in three police-reported human trafficking incidents is a cross-border offence
- In order to facilitate comparisons of incident, victim and accused characteristics over time, analysis in the remainder of this report, unless otherwise specified, is based on data from the Incident-based Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR) Trend Database, which contains data from a subset of respondents of the UCR. This database contains all police services who have consistently responded to the UCR over the entire period of the file. As of 2009, the UCR trend file includes data reported by police services covering 99% of the population in Canada, while coverage was lower in previous years. In order to maintain the highest level of consistent coverage over time, trend analysis begins in 2009.
- On the Trend Database, there were a total of 1,099 police-reported incidents between 2009 and 2016 which involved a human trafficking offence.Note Note More than half (55%) of these incidents were reported between 2015 and 2016.
- About one in three (32%) incidents of human trafficking between 2009 and 2016 was a violation of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act offence which targets human trafficking that crosses Canada’s international borders.Note
Three trafficking in persons offences were added to the Criminal Code in 2005: section 279.01 (trafficking in persons), section 279.02 (receiving a material benefit from trafficking in persons), and section 279.03 (withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking in persons) (Criminal Code 1985; Parliament of Canada 2005). Additionally, the 2005 amendments included a specific definition of “exploitation” for the trafficking in persons offences.
In 2010, section 279.011 (trafficking in persons under 18 years) was added and in 2012, the Criminal Code was amended to allow for Canadian prosecution of Canadians and permanent residents of Canada who commit human trafficking offences internationally (Criminal Code 1985; Parliament of Canada 2010; Parliament of Canada 2012).
In 2014, new offences prohibiting receiving a material benefit from trafficking of persons under 18 years (subsection 279.02(2)) and withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking of persons under 18 years (subsection 279.03(2)) were enacted and mandatory minimum penalties were imposed on all child trafficking offences, as well as the main trafficking offence (section 279.01) (Criminal Code 1985; Parliament of Canada 2014).
In addition to these Criminal Code offences, the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act includes a human trafficking offence that targets cross-border trafficking (section 118) (Immigration and Refugee Protection Act 2001). This is an offence punishable by a maximum penalty of life imprisonment and a fine of up to $1 million.
More than half of human trafficking incidents involve another offence, usually prostitution
- Of the human trafficking incidents reported by police between 2009 and 2016, more than half (51%) involved at least one other violation.Note Among the large majority (89%) of these incidents, human trafficking was the most serious violation.
- Incidents involving multiple offences where human trafficking was the most serious violation often involved prostitution offences as secondary violations (58%). Other common secondary violations included assault (all levels) (39%) or sexual violations (20%).
Victims of human trafficking most often young women
- According to police-reported data, there were a total of 865 victims of human trafficking between 2009 and 2016.Note Note The vast majority (95%) of these victims were women.
- Most (72%) victims of human trafficking were under 25 years of age (Chart 2). Females under the age of 25 years represented 70% of all victims of police-reported human trafficking (26% were less than 18 years old, and 44% were between 18 and 24 years).
- Nearly three in ten (27%) victims of police-reported human trafficking incidents experienced some level of physical injury, most of which were minor (i.e., not requiring professional medical treatment).Note Aside from physical injuries, victims of human trafficking may suffer other consequences such as emotional or psychological trauma (Hodge 2014; Public Safety Canada 2012; UNODC 2008): however, information on these types of impacts are not available from police-reported data.
Data table for Chart 2
| Age group (years) | percent |
|---|---|
| Less than 18 | 27 |
| 18 to 24 | 45 |
| 25 to 34 | 18 |
| 35 to 44 | 6 |
| 45 to 54 | 3 |
| 55 and older | 1 |
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Note: The Criminal Code offences which comprise the category of human trafficking in the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey include: trafficking in persons (CCCs. 279.01); trafficking in persons under 18 (CCCs. 279.011); material benefit (CCCs. 279.02); material benefit from trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.02(2)); withholding or destroying documents (CCCs. 279.03); and withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.03(2)). No victim information is captured by police for the offence of human trafficking under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. This analysis is based on data from the victim file of the Incident-based Uniform Crime Survey Trend Database (2009 to 2016) which covers 99% of the population in Canada. In order to support more detailed analysis on human trafficking victims, data have been pooled from 2009 to 2016. Victims refer to those aged 89 years and younger. Victims aged 90 years and older are excluded from analyses due to possible instances of miscoding of unknown age within this age category. Excludes victims where the sex or the age was unknown. Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (Trend Database). |
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The vast majority of persons accused of human trafficking are male, most often young
- Males were accused in more than four in five (81%) incidents of human trafficking reported by police between 2009 and 2016.Note
- The accused persons in 80% of human trafficking incidents were between the ages of 18 and 34 years. Males within this age group represented two-thirds (66%) of all accused persons (35% were 18 to 24 years and 31% were 25 to 34 years) (Chart 3).
Data table for Chart 3
| Age group (years) | percent |
|---|---|
| Less than 18 | 5 |
| 18 to 24 | 44 |
| 25 to 34 | 36 |
| 35 to 44 | 11 |
| 45 to 54 | 3 |
| 55 and older | 1 |
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Note: The Criminal Code offences which comprise the category of human trafficking in the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey include: trafficking in persons (CCCs. 279.01); trafficking in persons under 18 (CCCs. 279.011); material benefit (CCCs. 279.02); material benefit from trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.02(2)); withholding or destroying documents (CCCs. 279.03); and withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.03(2)). In addition, an offence in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which targets international cross-border trafficking (section 118) is included. This analysis is based on data from the accused file of Incident-based Uniform Crime Survey Trend Database (2009 to 2016) which covers 99% of the population in Canada. In order to support more detailed analysis on human trafficking accused, data have been pooled from 2009 to 2016. This analysis is based on incidents where a person was accused of a violation of human trafficking, but was not necessarily the most serious violation. Accused refers to those aged 89 years and younger. Accused aged 90 years and older are excluded from analyses due to possible instances of miscoding of unknown age within this age category. Excludes accused where the sex or the age was unknown. Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (Trend Database). |
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Ontario reports two-thirds of human trafficking violations over eight-year period
- Two-thirds (66%) of human trafficking offences reported by police between 2009 and 2016 were reported in Ontario, over one in ten (14%) incidents were reported in Quebec and just under one in ten (8%) were in Alberta (Table 1).Note
- In 2016, the rate of human trafficking in Ontario (1.6 incidents per 100,000 population) was more than one and a half times the national rate (0.9 per 100,000), and more than double the rate of Alberta and Quebec (0.7 and 0.6 per 100,000 population, respectively).Note
- While incidents of human trafficking in Nova Scotia accounted for 6% of the incidents reported nationally over the eight-year period, the rate reported in the province in 2016 (2.1 per 100,000) was the highest recorded among the provinces and territories.
- Similar to the national proportion, about one in three (34%) human trafficking incidents reported in Ontario between 2009 and 2016 were cross-border trafficking incidents—these are violations of a human trafficking offence under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, which targets crossing of international borders. Ontario’s cross-border human trafficking incidents accounted for more than one-fifth (22%) of all human trafficking incidents and the majority (70%) of all cross-border trafficking incidents in Canada over the eight-year period.
- Incidents of human trafficking are more often reported in census metropolitan areas (CMAs).Note Close to half of police-reported human trafficking offences between 2009 and 2016 were reported in the CMAs of Toronto (25%),Note Ottawa (11%)Note and Montréal (9%) (Table 2).
- In 2016, at nearly five times the national level, the rates of police-reported human trafficking were highest in Ottawa and Halifax (both 4.7 incidents per 100,000 population). Other Ontario CMAs of Hamilton, Barrie, and London, as well as the Quebec CMA of Gatineau, reported rates of human trafficking more than double the national level (2.6, 2.3, 2.1 and 2.1 incidents per 100,000 population, respectively). The rate of human trafficking in non-CMAs in 2016 was 0.5 per 100,000 population, compared to the overall rate of 1.1 per 100,000 population for CMAs.
- Halifax reported the highest rate of cross-border human trafficking (3.8 incidents per 100,000 population) in 2016—accounting for the majority (80%) of human trafficking incidents in the city. Similarly, the Ontario CMAs of Barrie (1.8 per 100,000), Windsor (1.5 per 100,000) and Brantford (1.4 per 100,000) reported higher rates of cross-border human trafficking, all accounting for the majority of the human trafficking incidents reported in these cities.
It is important to note that regional differences in the prevalence of police-reported human trafficking can be influenced by many factors. For example, regions may differ with respect to the presence or absence of training programs or expertise in the detection of human trafficking. Similarly, the presence or absence of local public awareness campaigns, provincial policies and victim assistance programs may impact the willingness of victims to come forward.
Additionally, volume of cross-border activity may impact the number of police-reported human trafficking incidents which involve crossing of international borders; For example, Ontario has the busiest international crossing points in Canada—this in turn may explain the larger proportion of cross-border human trafficking reported in Ontario.
The majority of human trafficking court cases result in decisions of stayed or withdrawn
- Statistics Canada collects information on court cases through the Integrated Criminal Court Survey (ICCS).Note According to the ICCS, between 2008/2009 and 2015/2016 there were 306 completed adult criminal court cases involving at least one charge of human trafficking.Note Note
- Of the completed criminal court cases involving human trafficking offences, about three in ten (27%)—or 84 cases—involved human trafficking as the most serious offence in the case.Note
- The remaining 222 completed court cases involved human trafficking, but it was not the most serious offence in the case. Among these, the most serious offence was most commonly an offence related to prostitution (57%), while about one in ten (12%) involved other deprivation of freedom offences (12%) as the most serious offence in the case. Given that the most serious offence in a case is represented by the most serious decision in the case, these results could be attributed to challenges in establishing and proving guilt in human trafficking cases (Farrell et al. 2016).
- Two-thirds (66%) of completed adult criminal court cases relating to human trafficking had more than one charge of human trafficking within the case.
- Of the completed adult human trafficking court cases where human trafficking was the most serious offence in the case (84), the majority (60%) resulted in a decision of stayed or withdrawn,Note while close to one-third (30%) resulted in a guilty finding.Note The accused was acquitted in five of the human trafficking cases (6%), while the four (5%) remaining cases resulted in other findings.Note
- While court decisions in human trafficking cases over the eight-year period were in line with those made in prostitution-related cases, they differed from overall trends in court decisions. Generally, stayed or withdrawn decisions represented a smaller proportion of completed cases between 2008/2009 and 2015/2016 (31% of all cases overall, and 40% of violent crime cases), while guilty findings were more common (65% of all cases, and 51% of cases involving violent crimes) (Chart 4).
- Current studies have found that due to challenges in prosecuting human trafficking cases, prosecutors will often proceed with other complementary or less serious charges (Leary 2016; McCrae 2016; Kaye and Hastie 2015; Farrell et al. 2016). For example, where there is difficulty in proving a human trafficking offence, a sex trade-related charge may be pursued. This may explain the large proportion of human trafficking cases resulting in decisions of stayed or withdrawn.
- In about two-thirds (64%) of human trafficking cases with a guilty finding, the perpetrator was sentenced to custody and in about one-third (32%) the perpetrator was sentenced to probation.Note
Data table for Chart 4
| Stayed or withdrawn | Guilty | Acquitted | OtherData table Note 2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| percent | ||||
| Human trafficking | 60 | 30 | 6 | 5 |
| Prostitution | 68 | 30 | 2 | 0 |
| Violent crimeData table Note 1 | 40 | 51 | 7 | 2 |
| All crimes | 31 | 65 | 3 | 1 |
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Integrated Criminal Court Survey. |
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Data source
Data are drawn from the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey and the Integrated Criminal Court Survey.
Detailed data tables
| Province and territory | Human trafficking violations | |
|---|---|---|
| number | percent | |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 2 | 0.2 |
| Prince Edward Island | 0 | 0.0 |
| Nova Scotia | 63 | 5.7 |
| New Brunswick | 3 | 0.3 |
| Quebec | 149 | 13.6 |
| Ontario | 723 | 65.8 |
| Manitoba | 21 | 1.9 |
| Saskatchewan | 11 | 1.0 |
| Alberta | 90 | 8.2 |
| British Columbia | 35 | 3.2 |
| Yukon | 0 | 0.0 |
| Northwest Territories | 1 | 0.1 |
| Nunavut | 1 | 0.1 |
| Canada | 1,099 | 100.0 |
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Note: The Criminal Code offences which comprise the category of human trafficking in the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey include: trafficking in persons (CCCs.279.01); trafficking in persons under 18 (CCCs. 279.011); material benefit (CCCs. 279.02); material benefit from trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.02(2)); withholding or destroying documents (CCCs. 279.03); and withholding or destroying documents to facilitate trafficking of persons under 18 years of age (279.03(2)). In addition, an offence under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which targets international cross-border trafficking (section 118) is included. This analysis is based on data from the Incident-based Uniform Crime Survey Trend Database (2009 to 2016) which covers 99% of the population in Canada. In order to support more detailed analysis on human trafficking, data have been pooled from 2009 to 2016. Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (Trend Database). |
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| Census metropolitan area (CMA)Table 2 Note 1 | Human trafficking violations | |
|---|---|---|
| number | percent | |
| Abbotsford–Mission | 1 | 0.1 |
| Barrie | 13 | 1.2 |
| Brantford | 6 | 0.5 |
| Calgary | 31 | 2.8 |
| Edmonton | 36 | 3.3 |
| Greater Sudbury | 8 | 0.7 |
| Guelph | 5 | 0.5 |
| Halifax | 58 | 5.3 |
| HamiltonTable 2 Note 2 | 48 | 4.4 |
| Kelowna | 1 | 0.1 |
| Kingston | 2 | 0.2 |
| Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo | 17 | 1.5 |
| London | 46 | 4.2 |
| Moncton | 1 | 0.1 |
| Montréal | 99 | 9.0 |
| Ottawa–Gatineau (Ontario part) | 122 | 11.1 |
| Ottawa–Gatineau (Quebec part) | 13 | 1.2 |
| Peterborough | 3 | 0.3 |
| Québec | 14 | 1.3 |
| Regina | 4 | 0.4 |
| Saguenay | 0 | 0.0 |
| Saint John | 0 | 0.0 |
| Saskatoon | 3 | 0.3 |
| Sherbrooke | 2 | 0.2 |
| St. John's | 2 | 0.2 |
| St. Catharines–Niagara | 21 | 1.9 |
| Thunder Bay | 0 | 0.0 |
| TorontoTable 2 Note 3 | 272 | 24.7 |
| Trois-Rivières | 0 | 0.0 |
| Vancouver | 20 | 1.8 |
| Victoria | 1 | 0.1 |
| Windsor | 48 | 4.4 |
| Winnipeg | 16 | 1.5 |
| CMA TotalTable 2 Note 4 | 983 | 89.4 |
| Non–CMA Total | 116 | 10.6 |
| Canada | 1,099 | 100.0 |
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (Trend Database). |
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References
Barrows, Jeffrey, and Reginald Finger. 2008. “Human trafficking and the healthcare professional.” Southern Medical Journal. Vol. 101, no. 5. p. 521-524.
Crane, Andrew. 2013. “Modern slavery as a management practice: Exploring the conditions and capabilities for human exploitation.” Academy of Management Review. York University. Vol. 38, no. 1. p. 49-69.
Criminal Code. R.S.C., 1985, c.C-46.
Farrell, Amy, Monica J. DeLateur, Colleen Owens, and Stephanie Fahy. 2016. "The prosecution of state-level human trafficking cases in the United States." Anti-Trafficking Review. No. 6, p. 48.
Hodge, David. R. 2014. “Assisting victims of human trafficking: Strategies to facilitate identification, exit from trafficking, and the restoration of wellness.” Social Work. Vol. 59, no. 2. p. 111-118.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. S.C.2001. c.27.
Kara, Siddharth. 2009. Sex Trafficking: Inside the Business of Modern Slavery. Columbia University Press.
Karam, Maisie. 2016. “Trafficking in persons in Canada, 2014.” Juristat. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85-002-X.
Kaye, Julie, and Bethany Hastie. 2015. "The Canadian Criminal Code offence of trafficking in persons: Challenges from the field and within the law." Social Inclusion. Vol. 3, no. 1. p. 88-102.
Leary, Mary Graw. 2016. "Dear John, you are a human trafficker." South Carolina Law Review. Vol. 68. p. 415.
McCrae, Karen. 2016. “Holding tight to a double edge sword.” Labour Trafficking in Edmonton.
Parliament of Canada. 2005. Bill C-49: An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Trafficking in Persons).
Parliament of Canada. 2010. Statutes of Canada 2010, Chapter 3: An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Trafficking in Persons).
Parliament of Canada. 2012. Statutes of Canada 2012, Chapter 15: An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Trafficking in Persons).
Parliament of Canada. 2014. Statutes of Canada 2014, Chapter 25: An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act).
Public Safety Canada. 2012. National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking. Catalogue no. PS4-175/2012E.
United Nations (UN). 2008. “The Vienna forum to fight human trafficking.” Background Paper: 024 Workshop: Quantifying Human Trafficking, it’s Impact and the Response to it. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking. Vienna, Austria.
United Nations (UN). 2014. Human Rights and Human Trafficking. Fact sheet no. 36. Office of the High Commissioner. New York and Geneva.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). 2008. “An introduction to human trafficking: Vulnerability, impact and action.” Background Paper. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). 2016. Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. United Nations Publication. Sales no. E.16.IV.6.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). 2017. “Evidential issues in trafficking in persons cases.” Case Digest.
Winterdyk, John, and Phillip Reichel. 2010. “Introduction to special issues: Human trafficking: Issues and perspectives.” European Journal of Criminology. Vol. 7, no. 5.
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