Ethnicity, Language and Immigration Thematic Series
Sources of income of racialized individuals 65 years and over in Canada, 2020
Text begins
Introduction
According to the 2021 Census of Population, 14% of people aged 65 and over in Canada are part of racialized groups, compared with 25% of the total Canadian population. Older racialized adults are a highly diverse group, primarily made up of South Asian, Chinese, Black, Filipino, Arab, Latin American, Southeast Asian, West Asian, Korean and Japanese individuals. This diversity reflects the growing diversity of Canadian society, attesting to Canada’s multiculturalism (Hou, Schimmele and Stick, 2023).
Canada’s population is aging rapidly, with an increasing number of people aged 65 and over (Statistics Canada, 2024a). This is particularly evident among racialized groups, whose population grew by 38% from 2016 to 2021, far more than the same age group in the non-racialized populations, which grew 18% over the same period. Although racialized people make up a significant proportion of this aging population, they can face specific challenges in terms of social and economic integration, as well as unequal access to the labour market. These factors can limit their ability to accumulate resources for retirement, such as pensions (Picot and Lu, 2017). As the racialized populations continues to grow, it is important to better understand their sources of income in order to inform program and policy development for this population.
The purpose of this study is to examine disparities in access to different sources of income for individuals aged 65 and over. This group is especially important because in 2023, the average retirement age was around 65, which affects how these individuals access their income sources (Statistics Canada, 2024b). This study is characterized by its intersectional approach, taking into account not only age, but also gender, generation status and geography, to better understand how these factors interact and influence financial resources at retirement age. This analysis is intended to fill existing gaps in analyses on the income sources of racialized individuals.
Previous studies
In their annual review of the labour market, Patterson, Hazel and Saunders (2019) showed that in 2018, men aged 55 to 64 had a participation rate of 72%, while this figure was 18% for those aged 65 and over. The reasons why older racialized and non-racialized adults continue to work are different. Older racialized adults, the majority of whom are immigrants, often work out of necessity due to economic challenges or lack of financial security for retirement, while older non-racialized adults may work by choice (Morissette and Hou, 2024). In addition, in 2020, racialized individuals aged 65 and over, and particularly racialized women, had larger poverty gaps. Among all the groups of older women examined, they were most at risk of low income or poverty, with significant gender gaps: 19% were below the low-income cut-off, before tax (LICO-BT) and 9% below the poverty line (MBM). Older immigrant women followed closely with proportions of 18% below the LICO-BT and 7% below the MBM (Leclerc, 2024). Although many other studies (Galarneau, Brunet and Corak, 2023; Sheila, Galabuzi and King, 2019; Picot and Lu, 2017) have examined economic integration and wage gaps in the racialized populations, few have looked at their sources of income at retirement age.
Highlights
- In 2020, 38% of racialized individuals aged 65 and over had private retirement income, compared with 66% for non-racialized individuals.
- In 2020, 94% of non-racialized women were receiving Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) and Canada Pension Plan (CPP) benefits, compared with 69% of racialized women. By comparison, 75% of racialized men and 95% of non-racialized men, respectively, received these benefits.
- Private retirement income varies by racialized group. Japanese individuals had the highest rate (74%), while West Asians had the lowest rate (15%).
- In both racialized and non-racialized groups, men aged 65 and over had higher employment rates than women in the same age group. For example, Arab men aged 65 and had a higher income rate (33%) than Arab women in the same age group (15%).
- Second-generation racialized individuals were more likely than third-generation or more racialized individuals to receive certain sources of income after the age of 65.
Background
While income experiences vary among racialized groups, several factors may help explain the disparities in access to different income sources among racialized groups in Canada. One such factor is immigration, as a significant proportion of racialized individuals aged 65 and over (46%) were born outside the country, a majority of whom (45%) immigrated between the ages of 25 and 44 (Statistics Canada, 2023). These individuals did not necessarily have the chance to build sufficient retirement savings before their arrival, which can lead to financial insecurity, exacerbated by the administrative obstacles related to residency and contribution requirements to access retirement pensions (Statistics Canada, 2022a; Government of Canada, 2021).
Wage gaps are also a potentially significant factor that can influence access for racialized groups to sufficient financial resources for retirement. Although racialized individuals have high levels of education, access to better-paying jobs and workplace pension plans may still be limited due to persistent barriers. For example, many racialized individuals reported experiencing discrimination or unfair treatment in their workplace, the most common place reported for these incidents (Statistics Canada, 2024). These barriers can limit access for racialized individuals to quality job opportunities (Galarneau, Corak and Brunet, 2023), thus contributing to wage disparities and potentially limiting their ability to build financial resources for retirement.
In 2020, racialized individuals aged 65 and older had fewer sources of income compared to the non-racialized individuals
With the exception of the Japanese population, whose income was higher than the income of the non-racialized populations, the trends observed in the different racialized groups show generally lower income than that of non-racialized individuals. For example, 66% of non-racialized individuals had private retirement income, with a median amount of $17,400, compared with 38% of racialized individuals, who had $11,000. Moreover, 85% of non-racialized individuals also had market income, with a median amount of $21,400, compared with 65% of the racialized populations, who had a slightly higher median amount of $14,300. Lastly, 94% of non-racialized individuals receive benefits from the Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) and the Canada Pension Plan (CPP), with a median income of $8,600, versus 72% of racialized individuals, who had a median of $5,280 (Charts 1 and 2).
Data table for Chart 1
| Racialized groups | Non-racialized population | |
|---|---|---|
| percent | ||
| Notes: In the 2021 Census analysis and communication products, the terms "visible minority" and "Not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population". For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||
| Market income | 65 | 85 |
| Private retirement income | 38 | 66 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 72 | 94 |
Data table for Chart 2
| Racialized groups | Non-racialized population | |
|---|---|---|
| dollars | ||
| Notes: In the 2021 Census analysis and communication products, the terms "visible minority" and "Not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population". For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||
| Market income | 14,300 | 21,400 |
| Private retirement income | 11,000 | 17,400 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 5,280 | 8,600 |
Among racialized groups aged 65 and older, the Japanese population were the most likely to have private retirement income and investment income
While racialized individuals aged 65 and over had a lower median income than non-racialized individuals in the same age group, a detailed analysis reveals differences in income sources within the various racialized groups. Japanese individuals stood out in that almost three-quarters (74%) had private retirement income, with a median income of $17,200. They were followed by Black individuals, close to half of whom (48%) had this type of income, with a median of $13,100. Arabs (24%) and West Asians (15%) had the lowest proportions of private retirement income, with median amounts of $11,600 and $8,100, respectively (Charts 3 and 4). Meanwhile, Japanese (91%; $9,100) and Black (83%; $7,600) individuals had the highest rate in terms of QPP and CPP benefits (Charts 3 and 4).
The Japanese population was in 2020, the group with the most income, benefits and financial investments. In fact, their rates and amounts were often higher not only than those of all racialized groups, but also of the non-racialized population (Table 1). Many factors can account for this income, such as generation status.
Data table for Chart 3
| South Asian | Chinese | Black | Filipino | Arab | Latin American | Southeast Asian | West Asian | Korean | Japanese | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percent | ||||||||||
| Notes: In the 2021 Census analysis and communication products, the terms "visible minority" and "Not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population". For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||||||||||
| Investment income | 34 | 54 | 28 | 25 | 28 | 19 | 28 | 28 | 39 | 67 |
| Private retirement income | 33 | 42 | 48 | 45 | 24 | 29 | 29 | 15 | 28 | 74 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 70 | 66 | 83 | 81 | 60 | 76 | 77 | 45 | 78 | 91 |
Data table for Chart 4
| South Asian | Chinese | Black | Filipino | Arab | Latin American | Southeast Asian | West Asian | Korean | Japanese | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| dollars | ||||||||||
| Notes: In the 2021 Census analysis and communication products, the terms "visible minority" and "Not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population". For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||||||||||
| Investment income | 1,860 | 2,620 | 536 | 540 | 2,180 | 785 | 1,130 | 3,020 | 2,580 | 2,920 |
| Private retirement income | 11,900 | 10,000 | 13,100 | 11,400 | 11,600 | 7,900 | 9,600 | 8,100 | 6,800 | 17,200 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 4,600 | 4,800 | 7,600 | 6,080 | 4,120 | 4,360 | 4,280 | 2,240 | 3,200 | 9,100 |
In both racialized and non-racialized groups, men aged 65 and over had higher employment rates and earnings than women in the same age group
Employment income means that individuals are still active in the labour market, earning a salary or wages. In 2020, Filipinos had the highest employment rate among racialized groups, with 34% earning a median income of $21,000. Among these workers, 40% of men earned $25,200, while 31% of women earned $18,600. This group was followed by the Black population, for which 32% of individuals were still in the labour market and had a median income of $14,800. In contrast, Chinese individuals had the lowest rate (21%) with a median income of $9,200 (Table 1).
Gender differences are also observed in the employment income of other racialized groups, with considerable differences between men and women in the rates and amounts. For example, among the Arab population aged 65 and over, a third of men (33%) had twice the employment income of women, with a median income of $14,500, compared with $10,800 for the 15% of women who had employment income. Among West Asians, women were almost half as likely as men (17% compared with 33%) to have employment income, and their median income was lower than that of men ($10,600 and $14,400, respectively). Among the Korean population, 30% of men had a median employment income of $12,300, while 16% of women earned a median income of $9,900. This trend was also seen in the non-racialized populations, where women not only had lower incomes, but also lower median amounts than men (Table 1).
It is important to note that racialized individuals with high employment income at retirement are often those who have fewer sources of other income, such as private retirement income. This suggests that because of the lack of these additional income sources, these individuals are forced to continue working beyond age 65 to supplement their financial resources. This may be why about half of older adults who continue to work do so out of necessity, often to meet their basic needs or support their families (Hazel, 2018).
| Total – Gender | Men+ | Women+ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | |
| Notes: In the analysis and communication products for the 2021 Census, the terms "visible minority" and "not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population", reflecting the increased use of these terms in the public sphere. For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses. Multiple racialized groups: Individuals who reported more than one racialized group by selecting at least two responses, such as "Black" and "South Asian". Men+ and women+: Includes men and women, as well as some non-binary individuals. Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||||||
| Total income | ||||||
| Total – Population | 32,800 | 100 | 40,000 | 100 | 27,800 | 100 |
| Racialized groups | 23,200 | 99 | 25,400 | 99 | 22,600 | 98 |
| South Asian | 22,600 | 98 | 25,200 | 98 | 21,800 | 97 |
| Chinese | 22,600 | 99 | 23,200 | 99 | 22,200 | 99 |
| Black | 28,600 | 99 | 32,000 | 99 | 27,000 | 99 |
| Filipino | 26,600 | 99 | 29,000 | 99 | 25,400 | 99 |
| Arab | 22,400 | 98 | 25,200 | 98 | 20,800 | 97 |
| Latin American | 22,600 | 98 | 25,000 | 99 | 22,200 | 98 |
| Southeast Asian | 22,400 | 99 | 23,400 | 99 | 21,800 | 99 |
| West Asian | 21,800 | 98 | 22,600 | 99 | 21,000 | 97 |
| Korean | 21,800 | 99 | 23,000 | 99 | 21,200 | 99 |
| Japanese | 38,800 | 100 | 45,200 | 100 | 34,400 | 100 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 26,000 | 99 | 31,200 | 99 | 23,800 | 99 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 25,200 | 99 | 28,400 | 99 | 23,800 | 99 |
| Non-racialized population | 35,200 | 100 | 42,400 | 100 | 29,400 | 100 |
| Market income | ||||||
| Total – Population | 20,600 | 82 | 26,000 | 85 | 15,900 | 79 |
| Racialized groups | 14,300 | 65 | 16,800 | 70 | 12,200 | 61 |
| South Asian | 14,900 | 58 | 18,400 | 67 | 11,500 | 50 |
| Chinese | 11,700 | 74 | 13,600 | 76 | 10,200 | 72 |
| Black | 17,600 | 70 | 20,600 | 73 | 15,500 | 69 |
| Filipino | 17,600 | 71 | 19,200 | 75 | 16,800 | 69 |
| Arab | 14,400 | 52 | 17,400 | 61 | 10,000 | 40 |
| Latin American | 12,400 | 54 | 15,700 | 62 | 10,200 | 48 |
| Southeast Asian | 12,700 | 54 | 15,300 | 60 | 10,600 | 48 |
| West Asian | 11,400 | 48 | 13,000 | 57 | 9,200 | 39 |
| Korean | 10,500 | 60 | 12,500 | 66 | 8,700 | 55 |
| Japanese | 23,600 | 93 | 28,400 | 94 | 19,000 | 91 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 15,900 | 68 | 21,000 | 74 | 12,700 | 63 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 15,900 | 69 | 18,400 | 74 | 14,100 | 65 |
| Non-racialized population | 21,400 | 85 | 27,200 | 88 | 16,400 | 82 |
| Employment income | ||||||
| Total – Population | 7,600 | 29 | 7,600 | 37 | 7,650 | 22 |
| Racialized groups | 12,700 | 26 | 14,800 | 32 | 10,900 | 21 |
| South Asian | 12,000 | 26 | 14,300 | 35 | 9,700 | 19 |
| Chinese | 9,200 | 21 | 10,900 | 26 | 7,800 | 18 |
| Black | 14,800 | 32 | 16,200 | 38 | 13,300 | 27 |
| Filipino | 21,000 | 34 | 25,200 | 40 | 18,600 | 31 |
| Arab | 13,600 | 25 | 14,500 | 33 | 10,800 | 15 |
| Latin American | 16,800 | 28 | 20,200 | 37 | 12,900 | 21 |
| Southeast Asian | 15,600 | 23 | 19,800 | 29 | 12,000 | 18 |
| West Asian | 12,700 | 25 | 14,400 | 33 | 10,600 | 17 |
| Korean | 11,900 | 23 | 12,300 | 30 | 9,900 | 16 |
| Japanese | 9,500 | 25 | 10,300 | 31 | 8,400 | 20 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 12,800 | 29 | 17,000 | 37 | 9,200 | 24 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 12,600 | 28 | 14,600 | 34 | 11,300 | 24 |
| Non-racialized population | 6,700 | 29 | 6,500 | 37 | 6,950 | 22 |
| Investment income | ||||||
| Total – Population | 1,380 | 47 | 1,450 | 48 | 1,320 | 47 |
| Racialized groups | 1,780 | 37 | 1,820 | 39 | 1,740 | 36 |
| South Asian | 1,860 | 34 | 1,860 | 38 | 1,840 | 30 |
| Chinese | 2,620 | 54 | 2,500 | 54 | 2,720 | 53 |
| Black | 536 | 28 | 592 | 27 | 500 | 28 |
| Filipino | 540 | 25 | 532 | 23 | 544 | 26 |
| Arab | 2,180 | 28 | 2,620 | 32 | 1,720 | 23 |
| Latin American | 785 | 19 | 720 | 20 | 830 | 18 |
| Southeast Asian | 1,130 | 28 | 1,080 | 28 | 1,190 | 27 |
| West Asian | 3,020 | 28 | 3,360 | 31 | 2,540 | 24 |
| Korean | 2,580 | 39 | 2,640 | 40 | 2,520 | 38 |
| Japanese | 2,920 | 67 | 2,660 | 65 | 3,020 | 68 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 890 | 35 | 900 | 36 | 870 | 34 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 1,640 | 38 | 1,490 | 40 | 1,760 | 36 |
| Non-racialized population | 1,350 | 50 | 1,420 | 50 | 1,300 | 49 |
| Private retirement income | ||||||
| Total – Population | 16,600 | 62 | 20,800 | 64 | 13,400 | 60 |
| Racialized groups | 11,000 | 38 | 12,200 | 39 | 10,000 | 37 |
| South Asian | 11,900 | 33 | 13,500 | 36 | 10,100 | 29 |
| Chinese | 10,000 | 42 | 11,100 | 43 | 9,000 | 41 |
| Black | 13,100 | 48 | 14,400 | 47 | 12,200 | 50 |
| Filipino | 11,400 | 45 | 10,900 | 47 | 11,700 | 45 |
| Arab | 11,600 | 24 | 13,700 | 28 | 9,400 | 20 |
| Latin American | 7,900 | 29 | 8,400 | 31 | 7,350 | 27 |
| Southeast Asian | 9,600 | 29 | 9,900 | 33 | 9,200 | 26 |
| West Asian | 8,100 | 15 | 8,500 | 16 | 7,300 | 13 |
| Korean | 6,800 | 28 | 7,850 | 30 | 5,840 | 25 |
| Japanese | 17,200 | 74 | 21,000 | 75 | 14,200 | 73 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 12,000 | 44 | 13,200 | 48 | 10,600 | 42 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 11,500 | 44 | 13,000 | 45 | 10,600 | 44 |
| Non-racialized population | 17,400 | 66 | 21,800 | 69 | 13,800 | 64 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | ||||||
| Total – Population | 8,400 | 91 | 9,000 | 92 | 7,650 | 90 |
| Racialized groups | 5,280 | 72 | 5,840 | 75 | 4,800 | 69 |
| South Asian | 4,600 | 70 | 5,320 | 76 | 3,720 | 64 |
| Chinese | 4,800 | 66 | 5,600 | 69 | 4,080 | 64 |
| Black | 7,600 | 83 | 7,800 | 85 | 7,450 | 82 |
| Filipino | 6,080 | 81 | 6,280 | 84 | 5,960 | 80 |
| Arab | 4,120 | 60 | 4,640 | 68 | 3,320 | 50 |
| Latin American | 4,360 | 76 | 5,240 | 82 | 3,520 | 72 |
| Southeast Asian | 4,280 | 77 | 5,240 | 82 | 3,360 | 73 |
| West Asian | 2,240 | 45 | 2,300 | 52 | 2,160 | 37 |
| Korean | 3,200 | 78 | 3,400 | 80 | 3,000 | 76 |
| Japanese | 9,100 | 91 | 9,800 | 92 | 8,200 | 90 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 7,000 | 81 | 7,800 | 85 | 6,450 | 78 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 6,360 | 79 | 7,050 | 82 | 5,760 | 77 |
| Non-racialized population | 8,600 | 94 | 9,100 | 95 | 7,850 | 94 |
Regional analysis of financial resources of older racialized adults at retirement age in Canada
A regional analysis of the financial resources of racialized and non-racialized individuals at retirement age in Quebec, Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia showed that racialized individuals in these provinces were less likely to have market income, with a smaller gap in British Columbia (20% lower). This trend was also observed for investment income, where racialized groups lagged behind the non-racialized populations, particularly in Alberta (19% lower) and Quebec (18% lower) (Table 2).
In addition, racialized individuals were also less likely to have a private retirement income, especially in Quebec and Ontario, as the proportion who had private retirement income was 31% lower than the proportion of non-racialized individuals (Table 2).
Racialized individuals aged 65 and over in British Columbia and Alberta seemed to have higher income than their counterparts in Quebec
An analysis of financial resources at retirement of older racialized adults in these Canadian provinces showed that older Chinese and Japanese adults in British Columbia and Alberta had particularly high sources of income at retirement. In British Columbia, more than half of older Chinese adults (57%) had investment income, and nearly half (42%) had a source of private retirement income. Meanwhile, more than two-thirds (68%) of older Japanese adults had investment income and almost three-quarters (73%) a source of private retirement income.
In Alberta, the trends are similar, with older Japanese adults in the lead: over half (65%) had investment income and nearly three-quarters (74%) a private retirement income source, the highest rates among all racialized groups and in these four provinces. These two groups had much higher rates of private retirement income and investment income than all racialized groups, with 37% who had investment income and 40% who had retirement income in Alberta, compared with 46% and 39%, respectively, in British Columbia (Table 2).
Moreover, older racialized adults in Quebec were generally less likely to have investment and private retirement income than their counterparts in the other provinces. In Quebec, Latin Americans had the lowest rates, with 18% who had investment income and 23% private retirement income (Table 2).
| Total income | Market income | Employment income | Investment income | Private retirement income | Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | |
| Notes: In the analysis and communication products for the 2021 Census, the terms "visible minority" and "not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population", reflecting the increased use of these terms in the public sphere. For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses. Multiple racialized groups: Individuals who reported more than one racialized group by selecting at least two responses, such as "Black" and "South Asian". Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||||||||||||
| Quebec | ||||||||||||
| Total – Population | 30,000 | 100 | 17,600 | 80 | 5,800 | 25 | 705 | 46 | 15,600 | 61 | 7,950 | 94 |
| Racialized groups | 22,000 | 99 | 11,700 | 58 | 11,500 | 24 | 1,160 | 29 | 9,700 | 33 | 4,240 | 74 |
| South Asian | 21,600 | 98 | 14,500 | 56 | 11,300 | 24 | 2,380 | 33 | 12,200 | 33 | 4,960 | 73 |
| Chinese | 20,600 | 98 | 7,600 | 67 | 7,250 | 17 | 2,040 | 44 | 6,750 | 37 | 3,320 | 66 |
| Black | 24,200 | 99 | 13,300 | 63 | 12,700 | 27 | 508 | 26 | 10,700 | 38 | 5,280 | 81 |
| Filipino | 23,800 | 99 | 14,600 | 68 | 13,900 | 27 | 520 | 29 | 13,600 | 44 | 4,560 | 90 |
| Arab | 21,000 | 98 | 12,200 | 54 | 12,100 | 27 | 1,600 | 26 | 10,000 | 24 | 3,400 | 62 |
| Latin American | 21,200 | 99 | 10,000 | 48 | 13,100 | 25 | 516 | 18 | 6,650 | 23 | 3,280 | 74 |
| Southeast Asian | 21,400 | 99 | 13,300 | 54 | 9,400 | 20 | 1,740 | 31 | 11,700 | 33 | 3,960 | 82 |
| West Asian | 20,400 | 98 | 8,800 | 45 | 7,100 | 22 | 1,700 | 24 | 8,200 | 15 | 2,740 | 45 |
| Korean | 19,200 | 99 | 9,300 | 54 | 7,250 | 15 | 4,080 | 35 | 4,720 | 32 | 2,360 | 79 |
| Japanese | 30,400 | 98 | 15,300 | 84 | 5,440 | 28 | 2,320 | 58 | 9,600 | 61 | 7,300 | 87 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 24,800 | 100 | 12,200 | 70 | 12,200 | 25 | 1,090 | 39 | 8,800 | 43 | 6,450 | 82 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 22,200 | 98 | 11,200 | 64 | 7,550 | 21 | 930 | 36 | 10,800 | 39 | 5,000 | 82 |
| Non-racialized population | 30,800 | 100 | 18,000 | 81 | 5,440 | 25 | 695 | 47 | 15,900 | 64 | 8,100 | 95 |
| Ontario | ||||||||||||
| Total – Population | 34,800 | 99 | 22,000 | 82 | 6,080 | 31 | 1,620 | 48 | 17,800 | 62 | 8,700 | 89 |
| Racialized groups | 23,000 | 98 | 15,000 | 64 | 11,800 | 27 | 1,620 | 36 | 11,800 | 38 | 5,720 | 71 |
| South Asian | 22,400 | 98 | 15,500 | 58 | 11,800 | 28 | 1,700 | 34 | 12,500 | 32 | 4,880 | 67 |
| Chinese | 22,200 | 99 | 12,000 | 72 | 7,450 | 22 | 2,620 | 52 | 10,800 | 40 | 4,800 | 64 |
| Black | 30,400 | 99 | 18,400 | 73 | 13,800 | 33 | 516 | 28 | 13,500 | 52 | 8,300 | 85 |
| Filipino | 27,400 | 99 | 18,400 | 71 | 18,000 | 35 | 504 | 26 | 12,300 | 47 | 6,400 | 82 |
| Arab | 22,600 | 98 | 14,900 | 49 | 12,400 | 23 | 2,340 | 29 | 12,000 | 23 | 4,400 | 57 |
| Latin American | 22,800 | 98 | 12,800 | 54 | 17,600 | 27 | 795 | 19 | 7,900 | 29 | 4,760 | 77 |
| Southeast Asian | 22,200 | 99 | 12,200 | 53 | 16,800 | 24 | 1,000 | 26 | 8,700 | 27 | 4,640 | 74 |
| West Asian | 21,800 | 98 | 10,800 | 44 | 12,000 | 24 | 2,380 | 24 | 9,100 | 13 | 2,200 | 44 |
| Korean | 21,800 | 99 | 10,000 | 58 | 10,300 | 23 | 2,260 | 36 | 6,750 | 28 | 3,600 | 81 |
| Japanese | 45,200 | 100 | 28,800 | 93 | 5,880 | 28 | 2,900 | 66 | 21,000 | 77 | 9,400 | 91 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 25,800 | 99 | 16,000 | 67 | 12,400 | 30 | 830 | 34 | 12,100 | 43 | 7,100 | 81 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 25,800 | 99 | 16,600 | 68 | 10,800 | 29 | 1,400 | 36 | 12,700 | 44 | 6,800 | 79 |
| Non-racialized population | 38,000 | 100 | 23,600 | 87 | 5,000 | 32 | 1,640 | 52 | 18,800 | 69 | 9,000 | 94 |
| Alberta | ||||||||||||
| Total – Population | 36,000 | 99 | 22,800 | 85 | 11,800 | 33 | 1,960 | 52 | 16,200 | 61 | 8,800 | 90 |
| Racialized groups | 24,400 | 98 | 15,100 | 67 | 15,600 | 28 | 1,800 | 37 | 10,600 | 40 | 5,480 | 73 |
| South Asian | 23,600 | 97 | 14,400 | 60 | 12,500 | 26 | 1,980 | 33 | 10,600 | 34 | 4,320 | 68 |
| Chinese | 24,400 | 99 | 12,600 | 78 | 12,000 | 24 | 2,140 | 53 | 10,000 | 49 | 5,640 | 73 |
| Black | 30,400 | 97 | 21,800 | 71 | 24,000 | 38 | 810 | 30 | 13,700 | 42 | 7,600 | 75 |
| Filipino | 26,400 | 97 | 20,000 | 68 | 27,600 | 36 | 670 | 22 | 11,300 | 38 | 5,640 | 74 |
| Arab | 24,800 | 98 | 17,400 | 51 | 17,200 | 25 | 2,360 | 27 | 12,800 | 26 | 4,800 | 68 |
| Latin American | 24,800 | 97 | 15,000 | 61 | 19,200 | 31 | 920 | 18 | 8,300 | 34 | 4,920 | 78 |
| Southeast Asian | 23,800 | 99 | 13,700 | 54 | 17,400 | 24 | 820 | 24 | 9,200 | 29 | 4,480 | 80 |
| West Asian | 23,000 | 96 | 11,700 | 56 | 11,400 | 31 | 3,160 | 31 | 5,600 | 23 | 2,600 | 51 |
| Korean | 24,600 | 99 | 12,100 | 68 | 15,800 | 27 | 3,360 | 41 | 7,100 | 31 | 4,720 | 77 |
| Japanese | 40,000 | 100 | 23,200 | 94 | 15,300 | 25 | 3,400 | 65 | 15,700 | 74 | 9,300 | 93 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 29,200 | 98 | 20,400 | 71 | 7,800 | 29 | 1,400 | 41 | 16,600 | 48 | 7,950 | 78 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 25,000 | 99 | 17,800 | 66 | 18,800 | 29 | 1,980 | 35 | 10,000 | 42 | 5,840 | 78 |
| Non-racialized population | 38,800 | 100 | 24,200 | 89 | 10,900 | 34 | 2,000 | 56 | 17,000 | 65 | 9,000 | 94 |
| British Columbia | ||||||||||||
| Total – Population | 33,600 | 100 | 21,200 | 84 | 11,200 | 27 | 2,180 | 52 | 16,200 | 62 | 8,400 | 89 |
| Racialized groups | 23,400 | 99 | 13,200 | 69 | 14,000 | 24 | 2,500 | 46 | 10,000 | 39 | 4,560 | 72 |
| South Asian | 23,200 | 99 | 13,400 | 59 | 12,700 | 24 | 2,080 | 36 | 10,300 | 33 | 3,160 | 79 |
| Chinese | 23,200 | 99 | 11,700 | 76 | 11,600 | 20 | 2,900 | 57 | 9,600 | 42 | 4,640 | 67 |
| Black | 35,200 | 100 | 23,000 | 80 | 23,000 | 36 | 860 | 35 | 16,600 | 54 | 8,200 | 85 |
| Filipino | 27,200 | 100 | 17,400 | 73 | 24,200 | 35 | 745 | 27 | 10,900 | 46 | 5,800 | 81 |
| Arab | 23,800 | 98 | 23,600 | 51 | 25,200 | 24 | 3,440 | 31 | 12,900 | 28 | 4,760 | 57 |
| Latin American | 23,400 | 98 | 15,100 | 62 | 18,400 | 31 | 1,530 | 24 | 10,400 | 32 | 4,640 | 75 |
| Southeast Asian | 23,200 | 99 | 11,600 | 54 | 16,200 | 23 | 1,130 | 28 | 8,600 | 27 | 3,640 | 75 |
| West Asian | 23,200 | 98 | 13,200 | 59 | 17,400 | 29 | 4,680 | 37 | 6,600 | 17 | 1,960 | 47 |
| Korean | 21,600 | 99 | 10,800 | 63 | 12,500 | 21 | 3,520 | 44 | 6,400 | 25 | 2,400 | 74 |
| Japanese | 35,600 | 100 | 20,400 | 92 | 11,400 | 22 | 3,000 | 68 | 15,600 | 73 | 8,800 | 91 |
| Racialized groups, n.i.e. | 25,200 | 99 | 16,200 | 69 | 17,000 | 26 | 1,140 | 36 | 10,400 | 47 | 6,550 | 82 |
| Multiple racialized groups | 25,000 | 99 | 14,800 | 77 | 18,000 | 28 | 2,480 | 49 | 10,000 | 48 | 5,760 | 77 |
| Non-racialized population | 37,600 | 100 | 23,200 | 89 | 10,000 | 28 | 2,160 | 55 | 17,400 | 69 | 8,900 | 94 |
Background
People of African descent have lived in what is now known as Canada for over 400 years. The first Black person to set foot in Canada was Mathieu Da Costa in 1604, followed by Olivier LeJeune, who is recorded as the first enslaved African to have lived in Canada (in New France) in 1628. There are three main countries, continents or regions with which Black populations have ancestral ties: Canada, Africa and the Caribbean (Domey and Patsiurko, 2024).
- While just over 4 in 10 Black individuals (41%) were born in Canada, Black populations accounted for the largest proportion (36%) of all racialized individuals in the third generation or more in Canada. In 2021, 6 in 10 Black individuals in Nova Scotia (60%) and almost 1 in 4 Black individuals in New Brunswick (22%) were third generation or more, reflecting the legacies of historical Black communities (Domey and Patsiurko, 2024).
The first Japanese community in Canada also has historical roots dating back to the 18th century, although in a different historical context than the Black population. The first person of Japanese origin, Manzo Nagano, settled in British Columbia in 1877. Japanese immigration to Canada occurred in two waves: the first from 1877 to 1928, and the second from 1967 onward (Lindsay, 2001).
- In the 2021 Census, close to 63% of Japanese Canadians (a total of 129,430 individuals) reported being second generation (38,810 individuals) or third generation or more (42,425 individuals). As a result, they had the second highest proportion of the racialized individuals in the third generation or more in Canada. In British Columbia, 39% of Japanese-Canadians are third generation or more, reflecting the existence of historical Japanese communities dating back to the 18th century. This trend is also found in Ontario (35%) and the Prairie provinces (22%).
Sources: Domey and Patsiurko, 2024; Colin, 2001.
Previous studies (Banting and Thompson, 2021; Hou, Schimmele and Stick, 2023) have shown that the socioeconomic integration of the second and third generations depends largely on the experiences of their parents and persistent discrimination in Canada. The socioeconomic outcomes of these generations show that they have been successful in the labour market (Wu, Schimmele and Hou, 2012). An analysis of their incomes reveals significant differences by generation status, particularly among the Black and Japanese populations, which have a high proportion of members in the third generation or more. This sets them apart from other racialized groups, mostly made up of first- and second-generation individuals. This section of the study focuses on Black and Japanese populations due to the sufficient number of third-generation individuals or more, which is not the case for the other racialized groups.
Second-generation Japanese and Black individuals in Canada had a higher rate of investment and private retirement income than the third generation or more
Second-generation Japanese and Black individuals stood out for their higher income rates in several key areas. For example, more than 7 in 10 second-generation Japanese (72%) had investment income for retirement, with a median income of $3,240, and nearly nine-tenths (86%) had sources of private retirement income, with a median income of $18,800. In comparison, 67% of the third generation or more had investment income ($2,700) and 71% private retirement income ($27,600) (Table 3).
Although these rates are lower than those observed in the Japanese population, the second-generation Black population also has higher rates of income sources at retirement age, with about one-third (34%) having investment income ($1,030) and more than half (56%) having private retirement income ($17,800). This contrasts with the third generation or more, where a quarter (23%) had investment income ($460) and more than half (51%) had private retirement income ($15,500). In addition, among both the Japanese (98%) and Black (86%) populations, a higher proportion of the second generation received CPP and QPP benefits than the first generation (Table 3).
Compared with these two groups, 47% of non-racialized individuals in the third generation or more had investment income ($1,050) (Table 3). This rate was higher than for second-generation Blacks, but lower than second-generation Japanese. The economic success of second-generation populations in Canada is in part linked to high levels of education, influenced by their parents’ education and family expectations. This may help them access higher-paying jobs and build financial assets, which can contributes to their retirement situation (Wall and Wood, 2023).
Second-generation individuals in both the Black and Japanese populations were more likely than other generations to have market income at retirement
Second-generation individuals aged 65 and over, in both the Black and Japanese populations, had higher market incomes than those in the third generation or more. For example, nearly four-fifths (79%) of the Black population had market income, with a median income of $21,600, compared with 69% for the third generation or more ($18,000) and 70% for the first generation ($17,400). For the Japanese population, almost all second-generation individuals (95%) had market incomes, with a median income of $25,600, compared with 94% for the third generation or more ($33,600) and 90% for the first generation ($16,200) (Table 3). Interestingly, despite higher market incomes, nearly 8 in 10 second-generation Black adults (79%) were still in the labour market after retirement age (Charts 5 and 6).
These trends were reversed for the third generation of the non-racialized populations, 84 % of whom had market incomes ($21,600), while 3 in 10 (30%) older individuals worked after retirement (Table 3).
Data table for Chart 5
| Japanese | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total - Generation status | First generation | Second generation | Third generation or more | |
| percent | ||||
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | ||||
| Market income | 93 | 90 | 95 | 94 |
| Investment income | 67 | 62 | 72 | 67 |
Data table for Chart 6
| Black | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total - Generation status | First generation | Second generation | Third generation or more | |
| percent | ||||
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | ||||
| Market income | 70 | 70 | 79 | 69 |
| Investment income | 28 | 28 | 34 | 23 |
| Racialized groups | Black | Japanese | Non-racialized population | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | median amount ($) | percent | |
| Notes: In the analysis and communication products for the 2021 Census, the terms "visible minority" and "not a visible minority" have been replaced with the terms "racialized groups" and "non-racialized population", reflecting the increased use of these terms in the public sphere. For the purposes of this study, Indigenous respondents are not included in the analyses. Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||||||||
| Total – Generation status | ||||||||
| Total income | 23,200 | 99 | 28,600 | 99 | 38,800 | 100 | 35,200 | 100 |
| Market income | 14,300 | 65 | 17,600 | 70 | 23,600 | 93 | 21,400 | 85 |
| Employment income | 12,700 | 26 | 14,800 | 32 | 9,500 | 25 | 6,700 | 29 |
| Investment income | 1,780 | 37 | 536 | 28 | 2,920 | 67 | 1,350 | 50 |
| Private retirement income | 11,000 | 38 | 13,100 | 48 | 17,200 | 74 | 17,400 | 66 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 5,280 | 72 | 7,600 | 83 | 9,100 | 91 | 8,600 | 94 |
| First generation | ||||||||
| Total income | 23,200 | 99 | 28,600 | 99 | 31,000 | 100 | 33,200 | 99 |
| Market income | 13,800 | 65 | 17,400 | 70 | 16,200 | 90 | 18,800 | 85 |
| Employment income | 12,800 | 26 | 15,400 | 32 | 10,200 | 25 | 7,050 | 26 |
| Investment income | 1,740 | 37 | 540 | 28 | 2,800 | 62 | 2,120 | 53 |
| Private retirement income | 10,600 | 37 | 12,800 | 48 | 11,500 | 68 | 14,200 | 67 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 5,080 | 71 | 7,550 | 83 | 7,300 | 86 | 8,600 | 90 |
| Second generation | ||||||||
| Total income | 44,000 | 99 | 37,200 | 97 | 43,200 | 100 | 39,600 | 100 |
| Market income | 29,000 | 90 | 21,600 | 79 | 25,600 | 95 | 24,400 | 89 |
| Employment income | 9,800 | 31 | 7,650 | 37 | 5,800 | 19 | 6,320 | 31 |
| Investment income | 3,600 | 62 | 1,030 | 34 | 3,240 | 72 | 1,880 | 56 |
| Private retirement income | 20,000 | 71 | 17,800 | 56 | 18,800 | 85 | 19,200 | 71 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 9,400 | 90 | 8,700 | 86 | 10,100 | 98 | 9,000 | 95 |
| Third generation or more | ||||||||
| Total income | 36,400 | 100 | 28,600 | 100 | 50,000 | 100 | 34,800 | 100 |
| Market income | 24,600 | 80 | 18,000 | 69 | 33,600 | 94 | 21,600 | 84 |
| Employment income | 11,000 | 31 | 9,900 | 28 | 10,900 | 34 | 6,700 | 30 |
| Investment income | 1,640 | 44 | 460 | 23 | 2,700 | 67 | 1,050 | 47 |
| Private retirement income | 19,600 | 59 | 15,500 | 51 | 27,600 | 71 | 18,000 | 65 |
| Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) benefits | 8,700 | 93 | 7,800 | 94 | 9,400 | 91 | 8,500 | 96 |
Conclusion
In summary, an analysis of the income sources of racialized and non-racialized individuals at the average retirement age in Canada shows that non-racialized individuals generally have higher median incomes from private pensions, investments, and government benefits such as the QPP and the CPP than racialized individuals.
The data also indicate that both racialized and non-racialized men are more likely to have higher income rates than women in several retirement income categories, reflecting persistent gender disparities in financial security in retirement. In addition, the economic challenges racialized women are likely to face, compounded by double marginalization due to their gender and ethnocultural background.
The analysis by region indicates that older racialized adults are likely to experience variations in financial resources in retirement across Canada. Some provinces, such as Alberta and British Columbia, seem to offer potentially favourable retirement conditions for some groups, while others, such as Quebec, may present challenges.
Finally, the impact of generation status on income sources at retirement age is evident in the second-generation Black and Japanese populations, which stood out for having the highest rates of investment and market income than other generations.
In future analyses, it will be interesting to look at the different sources of retirement income of various racialized groups, homing in on the migratory status and period of immigration of these populations, because the length of stay in Canada can influence the accumulation of resources for retirement (Hou, Schimmele and Stick, 2023).
Bibliography
Banting, Keith and Thompson, Richard (2021). “The Puzzling Persistence of Racial Inequality in Canada.” Canadian Journal of Political Science, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 870-891. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/E89DEFD1170245773E2CDDF23ACACE95/S0008423921000585a.pdf/the-puzzling-persistence-of-racial-inequality-in-canada.pdf
Block, Sheila, Galabuzi, Grace-Edward and Tranjan, Ricardo (2019). “Canada’s Colour Coded Income Inequality.” Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, https://www.policyalternatives.ca/wp-content/uploads/attachments/Canada%27s%20Colour%20Coded%20Income%20Inequality.pdf
Domey, Natalie and Patsiurko, Natalka (2024). “The Diversity of the Black Populations in Canada, 2021: A Sociodemographic Portrait.” Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-657-x/89-657-x2024005-eng.htm
Galarneau, Diane, Corak, Liliana and Brunet, Sylvie (2023). “Early career job quality of racialized Canadian graduates with a bachelor’s degree, 2014 to 2017 Cohorts.” Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 75-006-X, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/75-006-x/2023001/article/00001-eng.pdf?st=z7-UlvGC
Government of Canada (2021). “Trends in economic performance of immigrants in Canada.” Government of Canada, https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/research/role-migrant-labour-supply-canadian-labour-market/section-5.html
Hazel, Myriam (2018). “Reasons for working at 60 and beyond,” Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 71-222-X, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/71-222-x/71-222-x2018003-eng.pdf?st=PfUg-WOr
Hou, Feng, Schimmele, Christophe and Stick, Max (2023). “Changing demographics of racialized people in Canada.” Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2023008/article/00001-eng.htm
Lindsay, Colin (2001). “Profiles of Ethnic Communities in Canada: The Japanese Community in Canada.” Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007013-eng.pdf?st=2MFPmvzW
Morissette, René and Hou, Feng (2024). “Employment by choice and necessity among Canadian-born and immigrant seniors.” Statistics Canada, Economic and Social Reports, 2563-8955, vol. 4, no. 4, April 2024. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2024004/article/00002-eng.htm
Patterson, Martha, Hazel, Myriam and Saunders, Dylan (2019). “Annual review of the labour market, 2018.” Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/75-004-m/75-004-m2019002-eng.pdf?st=3bn-X14K
Picot, Garnett, and Lu, Yuqian (2017). “Chronic low income among immigrants in Canada and its communities. ”Analytical Studies Branch Research Paper Series, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 11F0019M, No. 397, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2017397-eng.pdf?st=1p9WnXXW
Reitz , Jeffery G. and Somerville, Kara (2004). “Institutional Change and Emerging Cohorts of the ‘New’ Immigrant Second Generation: Implications for the Integration of Racial Minorities in Canada,” Journal of International Migration and Integration. Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 385-415.
Leclerc, Karine (2024). “The poverty rate and low-income situation of older persons in Canada: An intersectional analysis.” Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-20-0002/452000022024002-eng.htm
Statistics Canada (2017). “Number and proportion of visible minority population in Canada, 1981 to 2036.” https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/dai/btd/othervisuals/other010
Statistics Canada (2021). “A portrait of educational attainment and occupational outcomes among racialized populations in 2021,” The Daily. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/as-sa/98-200-X/2021011/98-200-x2021011-eng.cfm
Statistics Canada (2022a). “Pension plans in Canada, as of January 1, 2021.” https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220718/dq220718a-eng.htm?indid=3312-1&indgeo=0
Statistics Canada (2022b). “Canada in 2041: A larger, more diverse population with greater differences between regions.” The Daily, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220908/dq220908a-eng.htm
Statistics Canada (2023). “Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population,” Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-316-X2021001. Ottawa. Released November 15, 2023. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E
Statistics Canada (2024a). “Canada's population estimates: Age and gender, July 1, 2024,” The Daily. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/240925/dq240925a-eng.htm
Statistics Canada (2024b). “Unemployment rate, participation rate and employment rate by sex, annual,” Table: 14-10-0327-02, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1410032702&request_locale=en
Wall, Kathleen, and Wood, Shane (2023). “Education and earnings of Canadian-born Black populations.” Insights on Canadian Society, Statistics Canada, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2023001/article/00009-eng.htm
Whitfield, Harvey Amani (2017). “The African Diaspora in Atlantic Canada: History, Historians, and Historiography.” Vol. 46 (1). https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/Acadiensis/article/view/25761
Wu, Zhong, Schimmele, Christoph and Hou, Feng (2012). “Self-perceived Integration of Immigrants and their Children.” The Canadian Journal of Sociology, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 381 to 408.
Note to readers
This study uses microdata from the 2021 Census of Population long-form questionnaire (which represents about 25% of the population). The detailed questionnaire provides comprehensive sociodemographic information for a very large representative sample of the national population. Data on racialized individuals and immigrant generations are the most relevant elements of the study.
In the 2021 Census of Population, the reference period for all income variables is the 2020 calendar year.
Data on racialized groups are measured using the “visible minority” variable from the Census of Population. Under the Employment Equity Act, visible minorities are defined as “persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.” The visible minority population consists mainly of the following groups: South Asian, Chinese, Black, Filipino, Arab, Latin American, Southeast Asian, West Asian, Korean and Japanese. For more information on how to effectively use and interpret data on visible minorities and population groups from the 2021 Census, please refer to the Visible Minority and Population Group Reference Guide, Census of Population, 2021.
All the data in this article cover individuals aged 65 years and over.
For the purposes of this study, the category “women+” includes women as well as some non-binary persons, while the category “men+” includes men as well as some non-binary persons.
The amounts shown are median values, reflecting the fact that the median income of a specific group. Median income is the amount that divides the income distribution of that group into two halves, i.e., the incomes of half of the units in that group are below the median, while the incomes of the second half are above the median. Median incomes of individuals are calculated for those with an income (positive or negative).
For the purposes of this study, the Indigenous populations and non-permanent residents are not included in the analysis.
In this study, the income sources examined include employment income, market income, private retirement income, investment income, and benefits from the Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) and the Canada Pension Plan (CPP). For more information, see the Dictionary, Census of Population, 2021.
- Date modified: