Workers’ experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, sexual assault and gender-based discrimination in the Canadian provinces, 2020

In Canada, the right of individuals to pursue employment opportunities and benefits—regardless of gender^Note  —is protected under the Employment Equity Act. Over time, public policy has come to acknowledge that women’s full participation in the labour force is vital for the well-being of individuals, families and society as a whole. Despite these advancements, inequality in some sectors of the labour market has persisted: from the wage gap to discriminatory hiring and layoffs, women are often at a disadvantage when it comes to equal participation in the workforce and the economy (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2018; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2020).

Canadian federal, provincial and territorial governments have also recognized the negative impacts of sexual harassment in the workplace. Laws such as the Canadian Human Rights Code and legislation enacted by each province and territory aim to protect people from gender-based harassment at work. Despite these protections, widely-publicized accounts such as those associated with the #MeToo movement make clear that women continue to experience gender-based discrimination and inappropriate sexualized behaviours that can make them feel undervalued, uncomfortable and unsafe while at work. These experiences—ranging from sexual jokes and comments to unwanted physical contact to sexual assault—can profoundly impact women’s labour force participation and opportunities. Women’s choices and economic success may be limited by these experiences and their physical and psychological well-being can suffer, affecting their lives and the lives of those close to them (Berdahl and Raver 2011). Furthermore, when sexualized and discriminatory behaviours are present in an organizational setting, they can normalize stereotypes and reproduce them on a systemic scale; this takes on particular importance when sexualized behaviours and discrimination are present in the workplace, where women and others continue to experience inequities in relation to opportunities, advancement and pay (Hershcovis et al. 2021).

Unequal access and opportunities in the workplace also affect those who identify as an immigrant, a member of a designated visible minority group, an Indigenous person (First Nations person, Métis or Inuit), a person with a disability, with a sexual orientation other than heterosexual, or with a gender other than the one assigned at birth. Members of these groups face other forms of discrimination when it comes to labour market participation and income, and those who identify as women are especially vulnerable (Office for Economic Cooperation and Development 2017). How inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination based on gender, gender identity and sexual orientation affect members of these marginalized groups is therefore of particular importance.

In 2020, for the first time, Statistics Canada conducted the Survey on Sexual Misconduct at Work (SSMW). The development and collection of this survey was funded by the Department for Women and Gender Equality (WAGE) as part of the 2017 Federal Strategy to Prevent and Address Gender-Based Violence. Implicit in this strategy is a focus on reducing the risk of violence experienced by women and others; to that end, an understanding of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discrimination and sexual assault in the workplace is key.

This Juristat article uses data from the 2020 SSMW to explore the nature and prevalence of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discrimination and sexual assault in Canadian workplaces (see Text box 1 for a detailed list of behaviours measured by the survey). In looking at inappropriate behaviours in the workplace, the survey examined events that occurred in and around the physical work location (or lodging provided by the employer), and included events that occurred electronically or by phone between individuals related through work or business. In addition, incidents that took place during work-related travel, training, or social events that involved co-workers or clients are also included.

The characteristics of those who experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours, gender-based discrimination or sexual assault in the past 12 months and of the workplaces where they happened are explored, to gain an understanding of who is most at risk. The impacts and consequences of these situations are examined, including analysis of what kinds of actions women and men took in response to what happened.^Note  Additionally, information on workers’ perceptions of the policies, procedures and services in place at their work are presented.

It should be noted that the global COVID-19 pandemic has drastically changed how many Canadians work, with 39% having worked virtually from home as of June 2020, compared to 17% before the pandemic (Zossou 2021). As a result of these changes, there has also been a significant shift in how people interact with colleagues and clients, and the impacts of these shifts differ for women and men.^Note  The majority of information that the SSMW collected from Canadians was gathered in the weeks just prior to the onset of workplace shutdowns in some regions. Thus, data collected and the analysis presented here mostly reflect the experiences of workers before the pandemic.

Throughout this article, the experiences of women will be compared with the experiences of men for a gender-based analysis, and gender-disaggregated data will be provided throughout. Where sample size permits, analysis will incorporate various socio-demographic characteristics (i.e., age, Indigenous identity, immigrant status, visible minority status, disability, religion, language, sexual orientation, marital status, urban or rural residence) in order to explore the intersection of vulnerabilities in the context of workplace experiences.

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Inappropriate sexualized behaviour and gender-based discrimination in the workplace

Just under half of workers witness or experience inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviour

Just under half (47%) of Canadian workers either witnessed or experienced some sort of inappropriate sexualized behaviour or gender-based discrimination in a work-related setting in the year preceding the survey—that is, in a place where they performed work activities for their job or business, or interacted with people associated with their work. Overall, being exposed to sexualized or discriminatory behaviour in these ways was as common for women (48%) as it was for men (47%).^Note  These findings suggest that many Canadians—irrespective of gender—work in environments where inappropriate sexualized and discriminatory behaviours are common (Table 1).

Inappropriate sexualized behaviours include behaviours related to inappropriate verbal and non-verbal communication, sexually explicit materials and unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations (see Text box 1). Equal proportions of women (44%) and men (44%) witnessed or experienced some form of these sexualized behaviours at work in the previous year. This overall similarity between women and men was driven by rates of inappropriate communication—the most common of the three categories of sexualized behaviours—which was as commonly reported by women (42%) as men (43%). Inappropriate communication includes sexual jokes, unwanted sexual attention, inappropriate sexual comments and inappropriate discussion of sex life.

Sexual jokes largely drove the similarities in the proportions of women and men who witnessed or experienced inappropriate communication―and in turn, inappropriate sexualized behaviours overall. Sexual jokes were witnessed or experienced in a work-related setting by about four in ten men (39%) and women (36%, a difference not found to be statistically significant). Aside from sexual jokes, all other behaviours related to inappropriate communication were more commonly witnessed or experienced by women workers: unwanted sexual attention, for example, was twice as common among women (16%) than men (8%).

Many Canadian workers also witnessed or experienced discrimination based on actual or perceived gender, gender identity, or sexual orientation. Gender-based differences were notable, with one in four (25%) women compared to about one in five (19%) men having witnessed or experienced this type of discrimination in a work-related setting. Women were more likely to have witnessed or experienced someone being insulted, mistreated, ignored or excluded because they are a woman (14%, versus 5% of men). Men, in turn, were slightly more likely than women to have witnessed or experienced someone in the workplace being insulted, mistreated, ignored, or excluded because they are a man (5%, versus 3% of women).

One in four women were targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour at their workplace

While many Canadians worked in environments where they witnessed or experienced inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviours, fewer were personally targeted with these behaviours and here, notable differences were observed between genders. Personal experiences of targeted sexualized or discriminatory behaviours were substantially more common among women workers (28%) than among men (18%; Table 2). Although a workplace where employees are exposed to “causal sexism” in the form of sexualized or discriminatory behaviours can negatively affect workers even indirectly, being personally targeted by these behaviours can have especially difficult consequences (Berdahl and Aquino 2009).

One-quarter (25%) of women workers said that they had been personally targeted by inappropriate sexualized behaviours in their workplace in the preceding year, while the same was true for 17% of men. Among these behaviours, all of those related to inappropriate communication in the workplace were more likely to have been experienced by women: 16% of women experienced sexual jokes, 12% experienced unwanted sexual attention, and 9% experienced inappropriate sexual comments or inappropriate discussions of sex life (respectively). These experiences were less common for men in the workplace (12%, 2%, 4% and 6%, respectively).

Men usually the perpetrator when women are targeted by workplace sexualized behaviour

Most often, women who were targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour in the workplace indicated that a man had been responsible. More than half (56%) of women who had experienced inappropriate communication, 67% ^E  who had experienced being exposed to sexually explicit materials, and 78% who had experienced unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations said that in all cases, a man had perpetrated the behaviour (Table 3). 

Men who experience inappropriate physical contact at work report both men and women as perpetrators

Among men who were targeted, a majority (66%^E) who had experienced exposure to sexually explicit materials said that other men were always responsible. However, half of men who experienced unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations said that it had always been perpetrated by a woman (51%). In contrast, men who experienced inappropriate communication were more likely than women to say that a combination of men and women was responsible (49%; Table 3).

Women more often targeted by gender-based discrimination at their workplace

As with inappropriate sexualized behaviours, women workers were more likely than men to state that they had experienced discrimination based on their gender at their workplace (10% compared to 4%; Table 2). Specifically, women were five times more likely to have been insulted, mistreated, ignored, or excluded because of their gender (7% versus 1%), three times more likely to have been told that that they were either not good at a particular job or should be prevented from having a particular job because of their gender (4% versus 1%), and twice as likely to have heard suggestions that they do not act like someone of their gender is supposed to act (6% versus 3%).^Note 

Most women who had been targeted with discrimination based on gender, gender identity or sexual orientation in their workplace said that the perpetrator was always a man (60%). An additional 30% stated that a combination of men and women was responsible, either for the same instance of discrimination or across multiple instances. Among men who had been targeted, almost identical proportions said that the perpetrator was always a man (33%), always a woman (33%), or involved men as well as women (32%, differences not found to be statistically significant; Table 4).

Most workers who experience inappropriate sexualized behaviours say they happened at the worksite itself

Many workplaces have codes of conduct meant to prevent inappropriate sexualized behaviours from happening on their premises; these practices are mandated by provincial and territorial legislation (for example, see Ontario Human Rights Commission n.d. (a)). Despite this, about half of workers reported receiving information on this issue from their employer: 56% of men and 49% of women said that their employer had given them information on what constitutes sexual harassment and sexual assault (see Table 7). In turn, the worksite itself was most often the location of inappropriate sexualized behaviours that occurred in a work-related setting; this includes a worksite or office building, a parking lot or outdoor space, or lodging provided by the employer. For example, almost nine in ten women (88%) and men (88%) who experienced behaviours related to inappropriate communication—the most common type of behaviour experienced by workers—stated that at least one instance had happened at the workplace itself (Table 3).^Note 

One-fifth of workers say some inappropriate sexualized behaviours happened away from the worksite

Inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviours targeting gender, gender identity or sexual orientation that are perpetrated by colleagues, clients or business associates can occur outside of the formal work space; they can also take place at a work-related event held in a public or private location like a bar, restaurant, hotel or conference centre. One-fifth of workers who experienced inappropriate communication said that at least once, the behaviour happened in this type of location, including equal proportions of women (20%) and men (21%; Table 3). Similarly, many workers said that a private or public place was the setting of work-related unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations: this was the case for 21% of men and 18% of women who had experienced this type of behaviour.

Some workers who experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour outside of the workplace said that a training session, conference, or work-related social event was taking place at the time. This was particularly notable for women: two-thirds (66%) of women who had been targeted with sexualized behaviour away from the worksite said that it had happened during training, a conference or a work-related social event. This was a considerably larger proportion than among men (49%^E; Chart 1).

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Inappropriate behaviours also happened by phone or online, when communications involved people who were associated through their work (see Text box 2).

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Experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination vary by occupation

Canada’s workforce is made up of thousands of occupations, and these can be described using the National Occupation Classification (NOC; see Text box 3). For decades, workers and social scientists have noted that many occupations are gendered, and suggested that workers in some jobs—namely, those historically occupied by women—experience lower wages and greater precariousness of work than others (Moyser 2017). Meanwhile, women working in occupations historically dominated by men face high rates of discrimination and sexual harassment (Gruber 1998). In response, some industry associations have developed programs which incentivize employers to enact changes to their workplace culture (for instance, see British Columbia Construction Association 2020). Findings from the SSMW reveal that despite such measures, women in certain occupations continue to experience high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours or gender-based discrimination in a work-related setting.^Note 

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Workers in some jobs historically held by men experience high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination

Regardless of their occupation, personal experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviour were common for women. Among women working in the five occupation groups where men made up more than half the workforce (see Text box 3), 28% had been targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour at work in the preceding year (data not shown). However, this proportion was close to that reported by women working in occupations where women were the majority (25%, a difference not found to be statistically significant).

Despite this, women working in certain occupations―where men outnumber women historically (see Moyser 2017) and in the present day―experienced considerably higher rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviour at work than other women. For example, almost half (47%^E) of women working in trades, transportation, equipment operation and related occupations experienced these behaviours at work in the past year. Large proportions of women working in natural and applied sciences and related occupations (32%) and in occupations related to manufacturing and utilities (29%^E) also experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour in the workplace (Chart 2).^Note   

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Similarly, men in some occupations where men historically outnumbered women experienced high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours. For example, about one in five men working in trades, transportation and equipment operations and related occupations (19%) and in natural resources, agriculture and related production occupations (20%^E) had personally experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours (Chart 2).

Overall, however, men working in occupations historically dominated by women experienced higher rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours than men working in fields where men were the majority. Almost one in five (19%) men working in the five occupation groups in which women formed the majority personally experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour at work, compared to 15% of men who worked in fields where men formed the majority of workers (data not shown). For example, 22% of men working in sales and service occupations and 19%^E of those in health-related jobs had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours in their workplace―proportions that were higher than among men in many other occupation groups, despite being lower than those experienced by women (Chart 2).

Sexualized behaviours perpetrated by clients, patients more common in occupations dominated by women

While overall, women working in the five occupations historically dominated by men had a similar rate of inappropriate sexualized behaviours to those in the five occupations in which women formed the majority, certain occupations within the latter group were the exception. Namely, women working in sales and service occupations—historically among the most common jobs for women (Moyser 2017)—were also more likely to have experienced these behaviours (32%) than women in most other occupation groups (Chart 2). 

Sales and service work brings women into near-constant contact with customers and clients, and they can spend more of their work hours interacting with the public than with their colleagues: just over half (53%) of women working in these occupations who had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour in the workplace said that at least one incident had been perpetrated by a customer or client (Chart 3). As women in these occupations often experienced multiple instances of inappropriate behaviours perpetrated by a variety of people, survey data cannot determine the gender of individual perpetrators; overall, however, 58% of women working in sales and service occupations who had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour said that the perpetrator had been a man (data not shown). This proportion was similar to what was reported by women across all occupation groups (56%, a difference not found to be statistically significant).

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Compared to women, a considerably smaller proportion of men in sales and service jobs who had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours said that the perpetrator was a customer or client (21%; Chart 3). Instead, men in this type of work were more commonly targeted by a co-worker (83% of men who were targeted, compared to 64% of women). Regardless of their relationship to the perpetrator, men working in sales and service occupations were no more likely to say that the perpetrator had always been a man or always been woman, compared to men across all occupation types.

Inappropriate behaviours perpetrated by customers and clients may pose particular difficulties for workers in sales and service occupations, and for their employers. For example, some workers may be reluctant to report the behaviour for fear of losing tips from their customers. Additionally, workplace harassment that is perpetrated by individuals other than employees is difficult to target with education campaigns directed at workers.

Further, these findings underscore an important difference between how women and men are treated in the workplace: while all workers in sales and service occupations experience a higher prevalence of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, the nature of those experiences differs. Women’s mistreatment by customers and clients supports observations that the anonymous, public-facing nature of some sales and service occupations emboldens some customers and clients to act in harassing and demeaning ways (Madera et al. 2019). Other industry practices exacerbate the issue further: for example, the Ontario Human Rights Commission singled out dress code practices in the province’s restaurant and bar industry, wherein many women employees were encouraged to wear sexualized clothing while at work (Ontario Human Rights Commission n.d.(b)). Such dress codes have the potential to normalize the sexual objectification of women, and make such objectification seem acceptable in certain establishments.

Notably, while women have historically been overrepresented in sales and service occupations, recent data from the Labour Force Survey show that men now make up a large proportion of those employed in these jobs (45%; see Text box 3 table). Despite this change, some observers note that this occupation type is largely devalued in the modern economy, with low wages, weak worker protections and instability (Madera et al. 2019)—in other words, characteristics historically associated with women’s work, and arguably part of its legacy.    

Women in healthcare occupations experience high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours perpetrated by patients and clients

Similar to sales and service occupations, women have historically been concentrated in jobs related to healthcare—for instance, nursing and personal support—where they also come into frequent contact with patients and members of the public (Robbins et al. 1997). A large proportion of women working in health-related occupations (30%) experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours in the preceding year, and almost two-thirds (63%) of them identified a patient or client as the perpetrator in at least one instance (Chart 3). Said otherwise, among all women working in healthcare occupations, almost one in five (18%) experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour by a patient or client in the previous year.

As with data on sales and service occupations, the genders of the specific clients or patients responsible for the inappropriate sexualized behaviours experienced by women in health occupations is unknown. However, 46% of women in health occupations who had been targeted said that the perpetrator in all instances was a man—a proportion that was not statistically different from women workers overall (56%; data not shown).

Men in healthcare jobs also experienced a high rate of inappropriate sexualized behaviours (19%^E), compared to men in many other occupations—although the prevalence of these behaviours among men working in health occupations remained lower than among their colleagues who were women (30%; Chart 2).^Note 

Women in occupations dominated by men experience higher rates of gender-based discrimination

Discrimination based on actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation more often targeted women working in occupations historically dominated by men. Among women working in the five occupations groups in which men formed the majority, 15% had experienced this form of discrimination; this compared to 9% of women working in job types where most workers were women (data not shown). Specifically, about one in five (21%) women who worked in the trades, transportation, equipment operation and related occupations reported being the target of discrimination; the same was true for 18% of those employed in natural and applied sciences and related occupations (data not shown).

Gender-based workplace discrimination was experienced by 7% of women working in health occupations and 12% of those in sales and service —both occupations in which women historically outnumber men. Just under half (48%^E) of women working in sales and service occupations who had experienced discrimination said that a client or customer was involved in at least one incident (data not shown).^Note 

When it came to gender-based discrimination targeting men, no statistically significant differences were found between occupations in which men or women formed the majority of workers.

Women more often targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviours when co-workers are mostly men

While a significant proportion of workers—particularly women and those in sales and service occupations—experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours perpetrated by clients, overall it was co-workers who were most often responsible for inappropriate sexualized behaviour at work. When it came to unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations, for example, 63% of women and 82% of men indicated that at least once, the perpetrator was a co-worker. Similarly, 69% of women and 84% of men who experienced inappropriate communication stated that a co-worker was responsible for at least one incident (Table 3).

While the gendered makeup of many occupation groups can have large-scale influence on how individuals experience inappropriate sexualized behaviour, the gender composition of a worker’s immediate colleagues can also play a role―especially for women workers. For instance, women whose co-workers were mostly men were more likely to experience inappropriate sexualized behaviours than those who worked mostly with women (32% versus 24%). For men, these proportions were relatively equal (18% of those who worked with mostly men and 19% for those who worked with mostly women, a difference not found to be statistically significant; see Table 9). 

When it came to gender-based discrimination, both women and men who worked predominantly with members of the other gender were more likely to be targeted. One in five (20%) women who worked with mostly men experienced gender-based discrimination, compared to 7% of those who worked with mostly women. Conversely, 5% of men in work environments dominated by men had this experience, compared to 11% of those who worked with mostly women (see Table 9).

Many of these findings echo those from previous Canadian studies, which examined inappropriate sexualized behaviour in other organized social contexts. For instance, the 2019 Survey on Individual Safety in the Postsecondary Student Population found that among postsecondary students, most instances of unwanted sexualized behaviours were perpetrated by peers―specifically, by fellow students who were men (Burczycka 2020). Similarly, while members of the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) were not included in the 2020 SSMW, a 2018 study of sexual misconduct in the CAF yielded comparable results (see Text box 4).

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More than one in five workers targeted say someone with authority perpetrated sexualized behaviour

When inappropriate sexualized behaviours in the workplace are perpetrated by someone in authority, the consequences can be especially problematic. Those targeted may feel that their job will be at risk if they speak out, while others may perceive that such behaviours are acceptable in their workplace (Berdahl and Raver 2011; Hershcovis et al. 2021). Data from the 2020 SSMW show that in Canadian workplaces, many women and men were targeted by someone in a position of authority over them, such as a supervisor or boss. Among workers who had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours, these proportions ranged from 22% to 28%^E among women and 21% to 30% among men, depending on the type of behaviour—differences not found to be statistically significant (Table 3).

Notably, men were more likely than women to have been targeted by a subordinate when it came to both unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations (13%, versus 4% among women) and inappropriate communication (9% versus 6%). 

Among both women and men who experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours, someone in a position of equal power in the workplace—at least, in a position of equal formalized power, as opposed to a supervisor or subordinate―was most often responsible. This was true across all categories of behaviours: depending on the type of behaviour, proportions ranged from 45% to 65%^E of women who experienced these behaviours, and from 62% to 74%^E of men.

With respect to discrimination based on actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation that targeted women, 44% said that someone in a position of authority was responsible for at least one incident (Table 4). The proportion among men was similar (36%).

Inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination in the workplace often happen with bystanders present

In addition to the relationships between those targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviours and those responsible, the number of people involved—as perpetrators or as witnesses—can speak to the broader workplace culture in which workers spend their days. People who work in a place where multiple individuals take part in inappropriate sexualized behaviour may perceive an unspoken acceptance of these behaviours among colleagues and potentially, management; their experience may differ from those of people who are targeted with sexualized behaviour by one co-worker behind closed doors. These contexts can reflect different workplace cultures and the contrasting ways in which women and men may experience them (Hershcovis et al. 2021).

Many workers who experienced sexualized behaviours in the workplace said that two or more people had been responsible for what happened. Men often indicated that multiple people had perpetrated the behaviour; for example, four in ten (39%) men who had experienced inappropriate communication said that multiple people were always involved, and similar proportions who experienced explicit materials said that it had always involved either one (48%^E) or multiple (36%^E) perpetrators (a difference not found to be statistically significant).  Though many women also experienced behaviours perpetrated by multiple people, more said that it was always one person responsible: this was the case for 71% of women who had experienced unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations, for example (Table 3).^Note 

Whether or not inappropriate sexualized behaviours happened in the presence of witnesses also speaks to workplace culture: for example, those who participate in inappropriate behaviours with witnesses present may do so because they feel that they will not be penalized. Women and men who experienced these behaviours in the workplace said that bystanders were often present at the time. Among women, much larger proportions of those who experienced inappropriate communication or physical contact or suggested sexual relations said that others were always or sometimes around (73% and 70%, respectively), compared to those who said that no one else was ever present (22% and 24%). Proportions were similar among men.

The presence of bystanders when incidents of discrimination took place followed a similar pattern to inappropriate sexualized behaviours. Among women, two thirds (66%) stated that other people were always or sometimes present when discrimination occurred; this was similar to what was experienced by men (71%) (Table 4).

A minority of women say that bystanders stepped in to stop inappropriate sexualized behaviours

In some cases, those targeted by sexualized behaviours reported that people who had witnessed the incident took action to help stop what was going on. Notably, women were generally more likely than men to say that bystanders had intervened: 31% of women targeted with inappropriate communication in the presence of bystanders said that bystanders had taken action to stop the behaviour, compared to 19% of men. This was also the case for 27% of women and 10%^E of men who had experienced inappropriate physical contact and suggested sexual relations in the presence of others (Table 3).

When asked whether those present took any action in response to acts of gender-based discrimination, similar proportions of women (35%) and men (23%^E) who were targeted said that they had (a difference not found to be statistically significant; Table 4).

No statistically significant differences were found across occupation types when it came to whether bystanders were present when inappropriate sexualized behaviours happened. However, some differences were noted in the degree to which bystanders took action to stop the behaviour. Workers in health-related occupations were more likely to say that someone had stepped in to intervene when they had experienced sexualized behaviours in the presence of others (39%), compared to workers in business, finance and administration occupations (22%), in natural and applied sciences occupations (20%^E), and in trades, transportation and equipment operations and related occupations (20%^E, data not shown). While these patterns may suggest differences in workplace culture among these occupation types, they may also be related to who was responsible for the behaviours: for instance, workers in health occupations often experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours perpetrated by clients or patients, and some individuals may be more inclined to step in when they see a colleague being mistreated by a member of the public than by another co-worker.

Most workers choose not to speak about their experiences with others at work

As all workplaces in Canada must comply with anti-harassment and discrimination laws set out in federal, provincial and territorial legislation, most employers have policies in place to address inappropriate sexualized behaviours in their workplaces—including processes to facilitate reporting and disclosure by those targeted. However, not all workers received this information from their employer: 32% of women and 26% of men said that they had not received any information on how to report sexual harassment and sexual assault, and 34% of women and 28% of men said that they had not been instructed on how to access resources to deal with these situations confidentially (see Table 7).

In line with this, less than half of all workers who experienced these behaviours said that they had discussed the matter with someone at work. Among women, this proportion ranged from 34%^E to 52%, depending on the type of inappropriate sexualized behaviour. Among men, it ranged from 20% to 33% (Table 5). Most often, women were more likely than men to say that they had spoken to someone at work about what happened. When it came to discrimination on the basis of actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation, 48% of women and 35% of men reported having discussed what happened with someone at work (a difference not found to be statistically significant; Table 6).

Few workers speak to human resources, union representatives or others tasked with employee welfare

Of those workers who did speak to someone at work about their experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviour, relatively few spoke to human resources, their union, corporate security or someone else responsible for employee welfare. For example, few women who experienced inappropriate communication in the workplace spoke to a human resources advisor or corporate security officer (6% of those who had spoken to someone at work), a union representative (3%), or an ombudsperson or someone responsible for the welfare of employees (1%; Table 5).^Note  Considerably more had reached out to a person in authority, such as a supervisor, boss or senior manager, including 46% of women who spoke to someone about inappropriate communication and 41% of women who spoke to someone about physical contact or suggested sexual relations. Among men, 39%^E of those who had discussed inappropriate communication with someone at work spoke to someone in authority.^Note 

Similarly, a small proportion of women who had spoken to someone at work about discrimination that they had experienced said that they had contacted a human resources advisor or corporate security officer (7%) or a union representative (6%) (Table 6). About half (50%) said that they had spoken to a supervisor, boss or senior manager about the situation.

Instead, most workers who reached out to another individual in their workplace to discuss their experiences spoke to a colleague or co-worker who had no authority. This included 72% of women who had spoken about inappropriate communication and 74% of women who had spoken about unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations, and 67% of those who spoke about discrimination. Among men, 46%^E of those who spoke to someone about inappropriate communication spoke to a co-worker other than a person in authority or a subordinate (Table 5; Table 6).

Workers in some occupation groups were more likely to speak to someone at work about inappropriate sexualized behaviours. For instance, 58% of women in health occupations and 57% of women in sales and service who had been targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour said that they had spoken to someone at work about it; in contrast, this was the case for a lower proportion (39%) of women in business, finance and administration occupations (data not shown). Survey data cannot reveal the relationship between an employee and the perpetrator of a given incident that was or was not brought to someone else’s attention. However, a large proportion of women working in health and service occupations were targeted by a customer or patient, while women in business, finance and administration were often targeted by a co-worker; it is possible that for some, discussing the issue with others can be more or less difficult depending on whether the perpetrator was a member of the public or another colleague.^Note 

Women say anxieties and mistrust related to reporting keep them from speaking out

The reasons workers gave for not discussing their experiences point to anxieties about the reporting process and the consequences of speaking out—reasons given by women, in particular. Many women who had been targeted with inappropriate communication^Note  and chose not to speak to anyone at work about it said that they believed no action would be taken if they spoke out (26%, versus 10% of men); they also feared negative consequences such as retaliation and career implications (20% versus 8%). Some women also stated that they did not think they would be believed or could prove what happened (12% versus 3%) or that they felt embarrassed or ashamed (12% versus 6%). Notably, about a quarter (26%) of men who did not report inappropriate communication said it was because that they did not consider the behaviour to be inappropriate, compared to 10% of women (Chart 4).

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Most often, workers who chose not to speak to anyone at work about inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviour said that they did not think the incident was serious enough to report. Depending on the type of behaviour they experienced, between 56% and 62% of women who did not speak to anyone gave this as the reason, along with between 55%^E and 63% of men.

Among workers who had experienced discrimination and chose not to speak to anyone at work about it, few differences were noted in the reasons given by women and men. Both women and men often said that they were afraid of negative consequences (26% and 22%), that they didn’t think they would be believed or could prove what happened (16% and 13%), and that they felt embarrassed and ashamed (16% and 13%); none of these differences were found to be statistically significant (Chart 5).

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Women experience negative professional consequences of inappropriate sexualized behaviours

Inappropriate sexualized and discriminatory behaviours can have many negative consequences for those who experience them. When people are targeted in their workplace, these impacts can be particularly significant. For many people, work is a major source of personal fulfillment, identity and social interaction; it is also a place where many people spend a considerable portion of their time (Walsh and Gordon 2008). When this environment becomes the site of inappropriate sexualized and discriminatory behaviours, the personal and emotional impacts on workers can be significant.

Many workers who were targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviours in the previous year indicated that they had experienced a range of negative impacts as a result. These impacts were especially strong among women: larger proportions of women reported negative consequences, across most impacts where comparisons were possible. Some particularly large gaps between men and women were noted for specific types of impacts. For instance, women who were targeted with sexually explicit material in the workplace were four times more likely to have avoided optional work-related social functions as a result (34%^E, versus 8%^E among men; Table 5). Similarly, women who experienced inappropriate communication at work were three times more likely than men to have avoided or wanted to avoid specific locations or tasks at work (30% versus 10%) and to have wanted to miss work or work fewer hours (17% versus 6%). Notably, women were almost four times as likely as men to seek out support services for help dealing with inappropriate communication in the workplace (7% versus 2%).

Impacts of unwanted physical contact, suggested sexual relations similar for women and men

In terms of impacts, the gap between women and men was smallest when it came to unwanted physical contact and suggested sexual relations. Although women who experienced this were still more likely to report avoiding or wanting to avoid both specific people at work (60%, versus 44% among men) and specific locations or tasks (38% versus 28%), other impacts were as common for men as for women. This included losing trust in authority at work or in the organization itself (20% of men and 26% of women), avoiding optional work-related social functions (18% and 22%), having difficulty doing their work (17% and 23%) and wanting to change jobs, transfer or quit (16% and 25%)―none of which were statistically significant differences. This suggests that relative to the other behaviours measured by the survey, unwanted physical contact and suggested sexual relations in the workplace have an especially negative effect on men. 

Similar to unwanted physical contact and suggested sexual relations, relatively small gaps in terms of consequences were noted between women and men who had experienced discrimination in the workplace. For example, similar proportions of women and men said that the experience had made them want to change jobs, transfer or quit (34% of women and 28% of men), had caused them to avoid or want to avoid specific locations or tasks at work (31% and 29%), or had resulted in difficulties doing their work (27% and 26%). A sizable proportion of both women and men stated that their experiences of discrimination had caused a negative emotional impact (42% and 39%; Table 6).^Note 

A notable consequence of inappropriate communication in the workplace which was as common among men as it was among women was the use of drugs or alcohol to cope with the experience. This impact was reported by 5% of women and 6% of men who had experienced inappropriate communication, a difference not found to be statistically significant (Table 5). Previous research has suggested that the link between substance use and psychological distress is particularly strong among men (Burczycka 2018).

Most workers see their workplace as fair when it comes to gender, sexual orientation of workers

Workplace culture is difficult to quantify, and observers look to many different aspects of work life in their attempts at measurement (Stainback 2011). When it comes to inappropriate sexualized behaviours and gender-based discrimination, factors such as those measured by the SSMW appear relevant. The widespread nature of these behaviours, the fact that many happen in a group setting, the involvement of those with authority in a significant number of incidents, and the anxiety that many workers—especially women—have about speaking out suggest that tacit acceptance of inappropriate sexualized behaviours and gender-based discrimination permeates the culture of many Canadian workplaces.

In addition to these factors, the SSMW asked workers about how they think workers of different genders—men, women and transgender people^Note  —are treated at their workplace. Overall, most workers felt that everyone at their workplace is treated fairly regardless of gender. For example, eight in ten (82%) women and nine in ten (87%) men agreed or strongly agreed that at their workplace, every person has equal advancement opportunities regardless of their gender or assumed gender (Table 7). At the same time, one in ten women (10%) and 4% of men stated that they had personally experienced gender-based discrimination in their workplace (Table 2).^Note 

Similarly, most workers―83% of women and 86% of men―agreed or strongly agreed that their workplace treats workers fairly regardless of their sexual orientation or assumed sexual orientation (Table 7). This kind of workplace discrimination, meanwhile, was reported by 7% of LGBTQ2^Note  women and 12% of LGBTQ2 men (a difference not found to be statistically significant). Notably, 27% of LGBTQ2 women had experienced discrimination based on gender or perceived gender at work in the previous year—a proportion almost three times larger than among LGBTQ2 men (10%; data not shown).

Overall, fewer LGBTQ2 workers agreed or strongly agreed that at their work, every person has equal advancement opportunities regardless of their sexual orientation or assumed sexual orientation (78%, versus 86% of non-LGBTQ2 workers) or whether or not they are, or are assumed to be, transgender (69% versus 79%; Chart 6). Notably, these differences reflected answers given by men: among women, no statistically significant differences were found between women who identified as LGBTQ2 and those who did not.

Chart 6 start

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Those with personal experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination less likely to see workplace as fair

When it came to the women and men in general, those who had personally experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour or discrimination at work were less inclined to see their workplace as fair and free of harmful stereotypes—for example, if men are expected to avoid taking parental leave, or if women are expected to wear revealing clothing. For instance, women who had been targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour were more likely than those who had not to say that there are sexist or gender specific stereotypes that have an impact on women's experience at work (42% versus 22%; data not shown). Results were similar among men: for example, a smaller proportion of those who had been targeted felt that at their work, every person has equal advancement opportunities regardless of their gender or assumed gender, compared with men who had not been targeted (78% versus 89%). For both women and men, this pattern was consistent for every question measuring workers’ perceptions of their workplace.^Note 

The gap between workers who saw their workplace as fair and free of stereotypes and those who were more critical was widest when it came to experiences of gender-based discrimination. For example, among women, those who had experienced this type of discrimination were less likely to see their work as a place where every person has equal advancement opportunities regardless of their gender or assumed gender (55%), compared to those who had not experienced discrimination (85%). Similarly, among men, those who had been discriminated against were more than twice as likely to feel that there are sexist or gender specific stereotypes that have an impact on men's experience at work, compared to those who had not experienced discrimination (60% versus 27%).

Inappropriate sexualized behaviour and gender-based discrimination at work among marginalized populations

Inappropriate sexualized behaviour, gender-based discrimination and sexual assault common among young workers, workers with disabilities

In Canada, certain populations are more at risk of experiencing multiple types of victimization. Women, young people, Indigenous peoples, people with a disability and LGBTQ2 people are consistently overrepresented as victims of violence and other types of criminal and non-criminal victimization (Conroy and Cotter 2017; Cotter 2018; Jaffray 2020). Findings from the SSMW also suggest that certain populations may be more at risk of inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination on the basis of actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation that occur in the workplace. Notably, some of these groups face other barriers to equality in employment and economic participation (Banerjee 2008; Hira-Friesen 2018; Schur 2009), representing additional vulnerabilities to maltreatment and exploitation.^Note 

As noted throughout the present article, inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination target women in the workplace in greater proportions than men. Among women, those younger than 35 were especially overrepresented: 39% of women aged 15 to 24 and 36% of those aged 25 to 34 experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour, proportions which decreased with age. This was also the case among women who experienced discrimination, with 18% of those aged 15 to 24 and 14% of those aged 25 to 34 reporting having been targeted. A similar pattern was noted among men, and among women who had experienced sexual assault related to their workplace (Table 8). These findings echo other Canadian population studies, which have consistently found that young people experience higher rates of victimization and misconduct (Conroy and Cotter 2017; Conroy 2018).

Individuals with a disability face particular challenges when it comes to participation in the workforce, many of which have been well-documented (Schur 2009). Additionally, people with disabilities—especially women—are at higher risk of sexual assault and unwanted sexualized behaviours in general (Cotter 2018; Cotter and Savage 2019). In the workplace, women with a disability were more likely to have experienced both inappropriate sexualized behaviours (35%) and gender-based discrimination (16%) than women without a disability (20% and 7%, respectively); they were also more likely to have been sexually assaulted in a workplace setting (3% versus 1%). Men with a disability were also at higher risk: 25% had been targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviour, 10% with discrimination, and 3% had been sexually assaulted. Proportions were considerably lower among men who did not have a disability (15%, 4% and 1%, respectively).

Gay and bisexual workers experience higher rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination than heterosexual workers

As in other public and private spaces, people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual or have another sexual orientation besides heterosexual experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour in the workplace more often than their heterosexual colleagues. This was the case for bisexual women in particular, among whom six in ten (59%) reported being targeted—well over twice the proportion as among heterosexual women (24%; Table 8). Similarly, gay men were twice as likely as heterosexual men to have been targeted by inappropriate sexualized behaviour in a work-related setting (32%^E versus 16%). Discrimination on the basis of gender, gender identity or sexual orientation also affected this group disproportionately: 30% of bisexual women experienced discrimination, compared to 9% of heterosexual women, while gay men were four times as likely as heterosexual men to have been targeted (16%^E versus 4%).

People whose gender is different than the sex to which they were assigned at birth, those with no gender, multiple genders or with an identity outside the gender binary face higher rates of discrimination, victimization and targeted misconduct in many spheres of public and private life (Jaffray 2020). Analysis of their experiences with inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination in the workplace was not possible here, due to data limitations; however, their responses were combined with those given by people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual or have another sexual orientation besides heterosexual (collectively referred to here as LGBTQ2). LGBTQ2 workers were considerably more likely to have experienced each of the sexualized and discriminatory behaviours at work for which comparisons were possible, compared to their non-LGBTQ2 colleagues: overall, almost half (47%) of LGBTQ2 workers were targeted (compared to 22% of non-LGBTQ2 workers; data not shown). For most behaviours, LGBTQ2 workers were two, three or four times more likely to have been targeted. 

Almost a quarter of LGBTQ2 workers had been targeted with discrimination based on actual or perceived gender or sexual orientation (23%, versus 7% of non-LGBTQ2 workers). Specifically, many were told that they do not act like someone of their gender is supposed to act (15%) and were insulted, mistreated, ignored, or excluded in their workplace because of their gender (11%) or sexual orientation (9%).

Indigenous and visible minority workers experience inappropriate sexualized behaviour, gender-based discrimination

Indigenous peoples in Canada (First Nations peoples, Métis and Inuit) face high rates of violence and structural inequality, rooted in colonialism and which continue to impact their lives and opportunities. Relatively few Indigenous workers were surveyed by the SSMW, making detection of differences between their experiences and those of non-Indigenous workers difficult. With this caveat in mind, personal experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviour in the workplace were reported by equal proportions of Indigenous and non-Indigenous women (25%, respectively). Similarly, gender-based discrimination at work was experienced by one in ten Indigenous and non-Indigenous women (10% respectively; Table 8).^Note 

Inappropriate sexualized and discriminatory behaviours in the workplace were less common among women and men who were immigrants or members of groups designated as visible minorities, ^{Note  Note}  compared to workers who did not identify with either group. Additionally, women and men who stated that they usually or sometimes wore visible clothing or accessories associated with their faith experienced these behaviours as often as those who did not wear these items. This is despite the fact that immigrants, members of visible minorities and members of various faith communities are often at particular risk of other forms of discrimination and unequal treatment with respect to employment (Banerjee 2008; Ibrahim 2018).

Temporary workers, those working part time experience similar rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours as permanent and full time workers

As is often the case with certain demographic groups, some work arrangements—work that is part time versus full time, for instance, or temporary versus permanent—are associated with inequality. Much research has focused on precarious work: that is, work arrangements that provide less job security, pay, benefits and protections, and which are more common among women, visible minorities and immigrants (Hira-Friesen 2018; Kalleberg 2009).

Many of the factors associated with precarious work did not appear linked to inappropriate sexualized behaviours in the workplace.^Note  For instance, among women, similar proportions of those who worked in regular (permanent) positions, those who worked in term positions, and those whose work was seasonal had been targeted (26%, 29%, and 35%; differences not found to be statistically significant). Similarly, no difference was seen with respect to sexualized behaviours among women who worked full time (26%) and those who worked part time (23%; Table 9). When it came to discrimination, however, women working in term positions were twice as likely as those in regular positions to have been targeted (20% versus 10%).

Comparisons of different types of shifts did reveal some notable differences among workers. For example, inappropriate sexualized behaviours were more commonly experienced by women on a rotating shift (35%) compared to those on a regular daytime schedule (23%); many women working a regular evening shift (32%) and those on an irregular schedule (30%) also experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours. Incidentally, these kinds of shifts are often associated with work in healthcare and service occupations, both of which are linked to higher incidence of inappropriate sexualized behaviour targeting women workers.

Similarly, unionization—often considered the antithesis of precarious work, for the protection it offers workers—seemed correlated with an increased prevalence of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, for women and for men. Again, the occupations in which unionization is common, including healthcare as well as trades, transportation and equipment operation and related occupations, saw a higher prevalence of inappropriate sexualized behaviours that target women as well as men. Further, being part of a union did not result in women being more likely to speak about their experiences with someone at work (53%, along with 51% of those not in a union; data not shown); again, it is possible that other characteristics of their occupation and their workplace played a role in whether or not women chose to speak about their experiences.

Women working in unionized positions experienced the same prevalence of discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation as women who worked in non-unionized jobs (10%, respectively; Table 9). Among men, a higher proportion of unionized workers reported discrimination, compared to non-unionized men (7% versus 4%).

Gender-based discrimination experienced by high- and low-earning women workers

In some ways, personal income can be seen as a reflection of an individual’s relative power in a workplace and in the economy. As with other work-related factors often associated with inequality, however, whether or not women and men experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviour in their workplace varied little according to their income. The same was true for women when it came to experiences of workplace sexual assault (Table 8).

Some differences were seen, however, when it came to women’s experiences of gender-based discrimination at work. Women who earned $80,000 or more before taxes and deductions in the year prior to the survey were somewhat more likely than those who earned either $26,000 to $49,000 or $50,000 to $79,999 to have been targeted with discrimination (13%, versus 8% and 9%, respectively). The proportion of women in that higher income bracket who had been targeted was, however, similar to the proportion among women earning less than $26,000 (12%). This suggests that while women with relatively lower economic power experience discrimination more commonly than many other women, those with the highest incomes are also at a higher risk.

Sexual assault in the workplace

One in eight women experience workplace-related sexual assault in their lifetime

Research on sexual assault has consistently found that women are more at risk of this form of gender-based violence, whether it happens in private or in public spaces. In 2018, the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces found that three in ten (30%) Canadian women aged 15 and older had been the victim of sexual assault in their lifetime, along with a considerably smaller proportion of men (8%) (Cotter and Savage 2019). Findings from the SSMW show that the workplace is another space where women are vulnerable to sexual assault: one in eight (13%) women stated that they had been sexually assaulted in a work-related context at one point during their working lives.^Note  This was four times greater than the proportion among men (3.0%; Table 10).

Sexual assault includes sexual attacks, sexual touching and sexual activity to which a person could not consent because they were intoxicated, coerced or forced in another non-physical way (see Text box 1). For women, sexual assault in the workplace often took the form of unwanted sexual touching, experienced by 13% of women who had ever worked. A smaller proportion (3.2%) had experienced a sexual attack, the most severe form of sexual assault, and 1.2% had experienced sexual activity to which they were unable to consent. Proportions among men were considerably smaller, including 2.5% who had experienced sexual touching and 0.5% who had been attacked sexually at some point during their working lives.^Note 

Among women who had worked in the previous year, 1.8% had been sexually assaulted, mostly reflecting experiences of unwanted sexual touching (reported by 1.7% of women).^Note  Unwanted sexual touching is the most common form of sexual assault in the general population (Conroy 2018; Conroy and Cotter 2017). Among men who had worked in the previous year, 1.1% had been sexually assaulted (again reflecting the 1.0% who had experienced unwanted sexual touching).

Someone in authority implicated by over a quarter of women who experience workplace sexual assault

Among women who had experienced sexual assault in a work-related setting in the previous year, 28%^E stated that the perpetrator of at least one incident was someone in a position of authority in the workplace. Just over one-third (35%^E) identified another co-worker (including subordinates) as the perpetrator, and 31%^E identified a client, customer or patient. Another 16%^E identified someone else associated with their work, such as a contractor or consultant (Table 11).

Sexual assaults—including sexual attacks, unwanted sexual touching, and sexual assaults where a person could not provide consent—sometimes include elements of coercion and manipulation. Among women who had been sexually assaulted in a workplace setting in the last year, almost a quarter (24%^E) stated that the perpetrator continued to pressure them verbally after they had said no. Just over one in ten (11%^E) reported that they had felt that their career would be at risk if they refused to participate in the sexual activity.

Most workplace sexual assaults perpetrated by a man, bystanders often present

The majority of women who had experienced sexual assault in the workplace in the past 12 months said that in each case, the assault had been perpetrated by one person (82%^E), and 81%^E said that the perpetrator in all instances was a man. About one in ten (11%^E) women, however, said that a combination of men and women had been involved, either in relation to one incident or across more than one assault. Notably, 54%^E of women said that bystanders had sometimes or always been present when the sexual assault occurred.

A quarter (25%^E) of women who had been sexually assaulted in a work-related setting said that in their opinion, the perpetrator’s use of alcohol or drugs played a role in the incident. While just over half (53%^E) said that they did not think alcohol or drugs were a factor, 20%^E said that they did not know if this was the case (Table 11).

Almost half of women who had been sexually assaulted in the workplace spoke about it with someone at work

For various reasons, many victims of sexual assault choose not to disclose their experiences to police or others in authority (Conroy and Cotter 2017; Cotter 2021). In many workplaces, formal procedures and guidelines are in place to encourage victims to report sexual assault and other misconduct (see Gabriele and Naushan 2020). According to the SSMW, nearly half (47%^E) of women who had been sexually assaulted in a work-related setting in the previous year spoke to someone at work about what happened. This could have been someone in authority, someone responsible for the welfare of employees, a colleague or someone else associated with the victim’s work.^Note  However, less than one in ten (9%^E) women reported that they had filed a formal complaint or a grievance (Table 12).

Many women who did not speak to anyone at work about the sexual assault that they had experienced said that they did not do so because they did not think the issue was serious enough to discuss (34%^E; Chart 7). This is consistent with reasons given by women who had experienced sexual assault in other settings (Burczycka 2020; Conroy and Cotter 2017).

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Women who were sexually assaulted in the workplace also gave other reasons for why they did not speak to anyone at work about what happened. Many felt embarrassed or ashamed (27%^E), thought that no action would be taken in response (26%^E), and had doubts about being believed or being able to prove what had occurred (25%^E).

The majority of women who had experienced a sexual assault in the workplace stated that they did not report it to police (93%^E, data not shown), a finding consistent with data from other Canadian population studies (Conroy and Cotter 2017). Women who experienced a workplace sexual assault in the previous year gave various reasons for why they did not contact the police, including not thinking that what happened was serious enough to report (52%^E) and not wanting to involve the police (43%^E). Some also feared negative consequences like retaliation or career implications (40%^E) or thought that they would not be believed or be able to prove what had happened to them (37%^E; data not shown).

Negative professional, emotional consequences common for women who experience workplace sexual assault

Negative professional consequences were experienced by many women who were sexually assaulted in a workplace context. Many avoided specific people (65%^E) or tasks or locations (48%^E) at work (Table 12). Women also reported difficulties doing their work (43%^E), a loss of trust in the person in authority at work or in the organization (42%^E), wanting to miss work or work fewer hours (41%^E) and wanting to change jobs, transfer or quit (39%^E).

Negative consequences outside the workplace also resulted from workplace sexual assault. More than half (56%^E) of women who had been sexually assaulted in the previous year stated that they had experienced negative emotional impacts; 19%^E sought out support services for help, and 20%^E used drugs or alcohol to cope with what happened. Many women reported psychological symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 14%^E met criteria used to screen individuals for the disorder in a clinical setting.^Note 

Geographical differences in inappropriate sexualized behaviour, gender-based discrimination and sexual assault in the workplace

Residents of urban areas more likely to experience work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discrimination, sexual assault

Workers who lived in urban areas^Note  experienced a higher incidence of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, gender-based discrimination and sexual assault in the workplace, compared to those living in rural areas. Inappropriate sexualized behaviours were more common for women (26%) and men (18%) who lived in urban areas, versus 21% of women and 13% of men in rural areas (Table 8).

When it came to discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation, differences were seen only among women (11% of women in urban areas, versus 7% of women in rural areas). Additionally, women in urban areas were at higher risk of work-related sexual assault than those living in rural areas (2% versus 1%).^Note  These findings mirror those from other population surveys, which also found that urban residents experienced a higher prevalence of unwanted sexualized behaviours than their rural counterparts—perhaps reflecting the heightened anonymity and volume of interaction with people that are associated with urban areas (Cotter and Savage 2019).

Some variation in workplace inappropriate sexualized behaviour rates noted between provinces

Some variation across the provinces was noted when it came to inappropriate sexualized behaviours at work. Relative to some other provinces, large proportions of both women (30%) and men (29%) living in Saskatchewan experienced these behaviours (Table 13). In comparison, smaller proportions of workers in Manitoba stated that they had experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours at work in the past year, including 20% of women and 12% of men.

Discrimination on the basis of gender or sexual orientation in the workplace was experienced by a greater proportion of women (13%) and men (7%) living in British Columbia, compared to some other provinces. Smaller proportions of women (7%) and men (2%) in Quebec experienced this kind of discrimination while at work.

Although workers’ occupation seems to have some bearing on their risk of experiencing inappropriate sexualized behaviour or discrimination, occupation does not appear to account for the differences between provinces. Data from the 2020 Labour Force Survey show that at the time of the 2020 SSMW, the distribution of various occupation types was relatively equal among the provinces (see Statistics Canada Table 14-10-0296-01).

Summary

Inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination based on actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation are common in Canada’s workplaces. Almost one-half (47%) of workers stated that they witnessed or experienced at least one such incident in the previous year, including equal proportions of women and men. Women, however, were considerably more likely than men to have been personally targeted: one-quarter (25%) of women had personally experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours at work, compared to 17% of men. Women were also more likely to have experienced workplace discrimination on the basis of their gender (10%, versus 4% of men).

The gendered nature of many occupations in Canada has direct implications on workers’ experiences of inappropriate sexualized behaviours and gender-based discrimination. Women working in the five occupation groups historically—and presently—dominated by men experience high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviours; however, these rates were similar to those experienced by women working in the five occupations in which women outnumbered men. A key difference is the context in which these behaviours occurred. When women worked in certain job types historically occupied by women—sales and service or health, for example— they were more likely than other women to experience inappropriate sexualized behaviours perpetrated by customers, clients or patients. This was less often the case for women working in occupations historically dominated by men; instead, women in these fields experienced a high proportion of incidents perpetrated by co-workers.

In addition to customers and patients or co-workers, many women and men experienced inappropriate sexualized behaviours perpetrated by a person in authority, such as a supervisor or boss. Depending on the type of behaviour experienced, these proportions ranged from 22% to 28%^E among women and 21% to 30% among men who had been targeted. Among women who had personally experienced discrimination based on actual or perceived gender, gender identity or sexual orientation, 44% identified someone in authority as responsible. The same was true for 36% of men who had experienced this type of discrimination.

Relatively few workers who were targeted with inappropriate sexualized behaviours or discrimination spoke to someone in authority, in human resources or at their union about what happened. For women―who were disproportionately the targets of inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discrimination, as well as of workplace sexual assault―the decision not to disclose their experience was often rooted in fear of the process or fear of negative professional consequences.

Some workers who had been targeted also expressed a lack of knowledge about the reporting process; in turn, large proportions of workers stated that they had not received information or education from their employers on how to recognize inappropriate and discriminatory behaviours and what to do about them.

Certain populations consistently experience high rates of misconduct and victimization in other areas of social life―those living with a disability, for instance, or who are LGBTQ2―also experienced high rates of inappropriate sexualized behaviour and gender-based discrimination in the workplace. However, rates were not higher among Indigenous workers, visible minority workers and immigrant workers―despite these groups facing other kinds of work-related and economic disadvantages. Similarly, non-unionized workers and those who fit the definition of “precarious workers” were not at a higher risk of inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviour at work. These findings re-enforce the fact that gender―in particular, being a woman―remains among the strongest correlates of inequitable treatment in the workplace.

Detailed data tables

Table 1 Inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviours witnessed or experienced in the workplace in the past 12 months, by gender and types of behaviour, 2020

Table 2 Inappropriate sexualized or discriminatory behaviours personally experienced in the workplace in the past 12 months, by gender and types of behaviour, 2020

Table 3 Selected characteristics of work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours experienced in the past 12 months, by category of behaviour and gender, 2020

Table 4 Selected characteristics of work-related discriminatory behaviours experienced in the past 12 months, by category of behaviour and gender, 2020

Table 5 Impacts and consequences of work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours experienced in the past 12 months, by category of behaviour and gender, 2020

Table 6 Impacts and consequences of work-related discriminatory behaviours experienced in the past 12 months, by category of behaviour and gender, 2020

Table 7 Perceptions of workplace and knowledge of procedures and processes related to inappropriate sexualized behaviour, discrimination and sexual assault, by gender, 2020

Table 8 Work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discriminatory behaviours, and sexual assault experienced in the past 12 months, by gender and selected victim characteristics, 2020

Table 9 Work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discriminatory behaviours, and sexual assault experienced in the past 12 months, by gender and selected workplace characteristics, 2020

Table 10 Work-related sexual assault, by gender and type of sexual assault, 2020

Table 11 Selected characteristics of work-related sexual assault experienced by women in the past 12 months, 2020

Table 12 Impacts and consequences of work-related sexual assault experienced by women in the past 12 months, 2020

Table 13 Work-related inappropriate sexualized behaviours and discriminatory behaviours experienced in the past 12 months, by gender and province of residence, 2020

Survey description

In 2020, Statistics Canada conducted the first cycle of the Survey on Sexual Misconduct at Work (SSMW). The purpose of the survey is to collect information on the nature, extent and impact of inappropriate sexualized behaviours, discrimination (based on gender, gender identity and sexual orientation) and sexual assaults that occur in a work-related setting in the Canadian provinces. Information on workers’ knowledge and perceptions of workplace policies related to these issues is also collected.

The target population for the SSMW is individuals aged 15 and older living in the Canadian provinces who were working in a paid or unpaid job or internship not organized through a school, or had done so in the past. Canadians residing in the territories, on reserve or in institutions are excluded, as are members of the Canadian Armed Forces. The survey was address-based and the sampling frame was constructed using Statistics Canada’s dwelling universe frame.

There were 12,138 respondents to the survey, and the approximated overall response rate was 29%. Non-respondents included people who refused to participate, could not be reached, or could not speak English or French. Respondents in the sample were weighted so that their responses represent the total Canadian population aged 15 and over, including non-permanent residents, and excluding persons living in institutions, persons living on reserves, members of the Canadian Armed Forces living inside and outside of Canada, as well as Canadians living abroad as of March 2020.

Data were collected via computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) and a self-administered online survey, and respondents were able to respond in the official language of their choice. Data collection took place from February 4, 2020 until June 30, 2020; however, collection operations were greatly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. While the online survey portal remained open until the planned collection end date of June 30, no reminders were sent after March 9. Additionally, CATI operations were stopped after two weeks of collection (taking place from March 2 to March 15), following to the closure of Statistics Canada offices due to the pandemic.

Following collection, a bias investigation was conducted to evaluate whether or not termination of CATI operations had an effect on estimates. It was concluded that responses collected through CATI differ from responses collected through the self-administered online survey. However, further analysis showed that normal survey weighting and calibration steps adequately corrected this bias. 

Data limitations

As with any survey, there are some data limitations. The results are based on a sample and are therefore subject to sampling errors. Somewhat different results might have been obtained if the entire population had been surveyed. The survey is also subject to non-sampling error such as coverage error, non-response error and measurement error.

For the quality of estimates, the lower and upper bounds of the confidence intervals are presented. Confidence intervals should be interpreted as follows: if the survey were repeated many times, then 95% of the time (or 19 times out of 20), the confidence interval would cover the true population value.

In addition to the confidence intervals, estimates are categorized into quality categories based on unweighted sample size. For the SSMW, estimates were releasable if their minimum unweighted sample was 10 in the numerator and 75 in the denominator; estimates falling below these thresholds are marked with the letter F. Further, estimates marked with the letter E have been deemed to be of marginal quality and should be used with caution. For the SSMW, this includes estimates based on an unweighted sample falling between 75 and 145 (inclusive) in the denominator.

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