Appendix 3

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Information on Indices used in this report

For this report indices were used only when the effect of a one standard deviation improvement on the score on the index was associated with an improvement of 15 points or more on the PISA combined reading score and there was a significant difference between minority and majority language student populations in at least 3 provinces.

The following explanations are taken from:

PISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? Volume IV © OECD 2010. Annex A 1: Construction of reading scales and indices from the student, school and parent context questionnaires. pp. 114-125

Explanation of indices

This section explains the indices derived from the student, school and parent context questionnaires used in PISA 2009. Several PISA measures reflect indices that summarise responses from students, their parents or school representatives (typically principals) to a series of related questions. The questions were selected from a larger pool of questions on the basis of theoretical considerations and previous research. Structural equation modelling was used to confirm the theoretically expected behaviour of the indices and to validate their comparability across countries. For this purpose, a model was estimated separately for each country and collectively for all OECD countries

Indices related to Students, Family, Home life

Immigration

The index on immigrant background (IMMIG) has the following categories: (1) native students (those students born in the country of assessment, or those with at least one parent born in that country; students who were born abroad with at least one parent born in the country of assessment are also classified as 'native' students), (2) second-generation students (those born in the country of assessment but whose parents were born in another country) and (3) first-generation students (those born outside the country of assessment and whose parents were also born in another country). Students with missing responses for either the student or for both parents, or for all three questions have been given missing values for this variable.

Family structure

The index of family structure (FAMSTRUC) is based on students' responses regarding people living at home with them. This index has the following three values: (1) single-parent family (students living with only one of the following: mother, father, male guardian, female guardian), (2) two-parent family (students living with a father or step/foster father and a mother or step/foster mother) and (3) other (except the non-responses, which are coded as missing or not applicable).

Social, Cultural and Economic status

The PISAindex of social, cultural and economic status (SCES) was derived from the following three indices: highest occupational status of parents (HISEI), highest educational level of parents in years of education according to ISCED (PARED), and home possessions (HOMEPOS). The index of home possessions (HOMEPOS) comprises all items on the indices of WEALTH , CULT POSS and HEDRES (see below), as well as books in the home recoded into a four-level categorical variable (0-10 books, 11-25 or 26-100 books,101-200 or 201-500 books, more than 500 books).

The PISA index of social, cultural and economic status was derived from a principal component analysis of standardised variables (each variable has an OECD mean of zero and a standard deviation of one), taking the factor scores for the first principal component as measures of the index of economic, social and cultural status.

Principal component analysis was also performed for each participating country to determine to what extent the components of the index operate in similar ways across countries. The analysis revealed that patterns of factor loading were very similar across countries, with all three components contributing to a similar extent to the index. For the occupational component, the average factor loading was 0.80, ranging from 0.66 to 0.87 across countries. For the educational component, the average factor loading was 0.79, ranging from 0.69 to 0.87 across countries. For the home possession component, the average factor loading was 0.73, ranging from 0.60 to 0.84 across countries. The reliability of the index ranged from 0.41 to 0.81. These results support the cross-national validity of the PISA index of social, cultural and economic status (SCES).

Indices related to Schooling and Academic Performance

Attitudes towards school 

The index of attitude towards school (ATSCHL ) was derived from students' level of agreement with the following statements: i) school has done little to prepare me for adult life when I leave school; ii) school has been a waste of time; iii) school has helped give me confidence to make decisions; iv) school has taught me things which could be useful in a job. As all items that are negatively phrased i) and ii) are inverted for scaling, higher values on this index indicate perception of a more positive school climate.

Teacher-student relations

The index of teacher-student relations (STUDREL) was derived from students' level of agreement with the following statements: i) I get along well with most of my teachers; ii) most of my teachers are interested in my well-being; iii) most of my teachers really listen to what I have to say; iv) if I need extra help, I will receive it from my teachers; and v) most of my teachers treat me fairly. Higher values on this index indicate positive teacher-student relations.

Enjoyment of reading activities

The index of enjoyment of reading (ENJOY) activities was derived from students' level of agreement with the following statements: i) I read only if I have to; ii) reading is one of my favourite hobbies; iii) I like talking about books with other people; iv) I find it hard to finish books; v) I feel happy if I receive a book as a present; vi) for me, reading is a waste of time; vii) I enjoy going to a bookstore or a library; viii) I read only to get information that I need; ix) I cannot sit still and read for more than a few minutes; x) I like to express my opinions about books I have read; and xi) I like to exchange books with my friends. As all items that are negatively phrased (items i, iv, vi, viii and ix) are inverted for scaling, the higher values on this index indicate higher levels of enjoyment of reading.

Teachers' stimulation of students' reading engagement

The index of teachers' stimulation of students' reading engagement (STIMREAD) was derived from students' reports on how often the following occurred in their lessons of the language of instruction: i) the teacher asks students to explain the meaning of a text; ii) the teacher asks questions that challenge students to get a better understanding of a text; iii) the teacher gives students enough time to think about their answers; iv) the teacher recommends a book or author to read; v) the teacher encourages students to express their opinion about a text; vi) the teacher helps students relate the stories they read to their lives; and vii) the teacher shows students how the information in texts builds on what they already know. Higher values on this index indicate higher teachers' stimulation of students' reading engagement.

Indices related to schools

Ability grouping

The index of ability grouping between classes (ABGROUP) was derived from the two items of school principals' reports on whether school organises instruction differently for student with different abilities "for all subjects", "for some subjects", or "not for any subjects". This index has the following three categories: (1) schools that do not group students by ability in any subjects, either between or within classes; (2) schools that group students by ability for some, but not all, subjects, and that do so either between or within classes; and (3) schools that group students by ability in all subjects either between or within classes.

Availability of computers

The index of computer availability (IRATCOMP) was derived from dividing the number of computers available for educational purposes available to students in the modal grade for 15-year-olds by the number of students in the modal grade for 15-year-olds.

Student behaviour

The index of student-related factors affecting school climates (STUBEHA) was derived from school principals' reports on the extent to which the learning of students hindered by the following factors in their schools: i) student absenteeism; ii) disruption of classes by students; iii) students skipping classes; iv) student lacking respect for teachers; v) student use of alcohol or illegal drugs; and vi) students intimidating or bullying other students. As all items were inverted for scaling higher values on this index indicate a positive student behaviour.

School responsibility for curriculum and assessment

School principals were asked to report whether "principals", "teachers", "school governing board", "regional or local education authority", or "national education authority" has a considerable responsibility for the following tasks: i) establishing student assessment policies; ii) choosing which textbooks are used; iii) determining course content; and iv) deciding which courses are offered. The index of the school responsibility for curriculum and assessment (RESPCURR) was derived from these four items. The ratio of the number of responsibility that "principals" and/or "teachers" have for these four items to the number of responsibility that "regional or local education authority" and/or "national education authority" have for these four items was computed. Positive values on this index indicate relatively more responsibility for schools than local, regional or national education authority. This index has an OECD mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

School responsibility for resource allocation

School principals were asked to report whether "rincipals", "teachers", "school governing board", "regional or local education authority" or "national education authority" has a considerable responsibility for the following tasks: i) selecting teachers for hire; ii) dismissing teachers; iii) establishing teachers' starting salaries; iv) determining teachers' salaries increases; v) formulating the school budget; and vi) deciding on budget allocations within the school. The index of school responsibility for resource allocation (RESPRES) was derived from these six items. The ratio of the number of responsibility that "principals" and/or "teachers" have for these six items to the number of responsibility that "regional or local education authority" and/or "national education authority" have for these six items was computed. Positive values on this index indicate relatively more responsibility for schools than local, regional or national education authority. This index has an OECD mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

School's educational resources

The index on the school's educational resources (SCMATEDU) was derived from seven items measuring school principals' perceptions of potential factors hindering instruction at their school. These factors are: i) shortage or inadequacy of science laboratory equipment; ii) shortage or inadequacy of instructional materials; iii) shortage or inadequacy of computers for instruction; iv) lack or inadequacy of Internet connectivity; v) shortage or inadequacy of computer software for instruction; vi) shortage or inadequacy of library materials; and vii) shortage or inadequacy of audio-visual resources. As all items were inverted for scaling, higher values on this index indicate better quality of educational resources.