Chapter D: Postsecondary education

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D1 Postsecondary enrolment
D2 Postsecondary completions and graduation rates
D3 University educators
D4 Research and development
D5 Literacy-proficiency scores and levels
D6 Educational attainment

D1 Postsecondary enrolment

Registered apprentices

Tables D.1.1 through D.1.3

Indicator D1 comprises three subsets on enrolment in postsecondary education. This first indicator subset presents information on the number of registered apprentices in Canada and its jurisdictions (Table D.1.1), including breakdowns by sex and major trade group (Table D.1.2), and by age group (Table D.1.3). Numbers and percentages are presented for 1994 and 2004.

Concepts and definitions

The enrolment information for registered apprentices is based on data provided by provincial/territorial apprenticeship branches and includes all individuals registered in an apprenticeship program, whether or not they had been enrolled in any formal classroom training during the year. This information is collected through the Registered Apprenticeship Information System (RAIS), an annual survey that gathers information on individuals who receive training and those who obtain certification within a trade where apprenticeship training is being offered; specifically, the number of registered apprentices taking in-class and on-the-job training in trades that are either Red Seal or non-Red Seal and where apprenticeship training is either compulsory or voluntary. It also compiles data on the number of provincial and interprovincial certificates granted to apprentices or tradespersons.

The RAIS also collects information on tradespersons; that is, individuals who receive a trade qualifier certificate in a trade for which apprenticeship is voluntary. This means that they did not register for or complete apprenticeship training, but succeeded in obtaining certification within that trade.

This sub-indicator presents the number of registered apprentices, by sex, for the following major trade groups: building construction; electrical, electronics and related; food and service; industrial and related mechanical; metal fabricating; motor vehicle and heavy equipment; and other. The “other” group consists of miscellaneous trades and occupations not classified elsewhere. Many of the trades and occupations that have been newly established since the 1990s have been added to this group; for example, child and youth worker and early childhood educator, as well as set dresser and assistant cameraperson.

The number/percentage of registered apprentices is provided for the following seven age groups: under 20; 20 to 24; 25 to 29; 30 to 34; 35 to 39; 40 to 44; 45 and over; and for those whose age was not reported.

Methodology

The Registered Apprenticeship Information System (RAIS) survey is a census; that is, data are collected for all units of the target population and no sampling is done. Response is mandatory and data are collected directly from respondents and extracted from administrative files. The information is requested in individual record format and each record represents a registered apprentice. The reference period is the calendar year; the collection period is February through September of the year after the reference year.

Limitations

Provincial and territorial governments coordinate apprenticeship programs in their jurisdiction. Most of the training time for an apprentice is spent on the job working with experienced tradespersons, usually over a period of three to four years. A portion of the apprenticeship program is spent in formal classroom instruction, typically offered in a college or vocational school. When this occurs, the training institute reports apprenticeship enrolments in the in-class portion only.

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data. As a result, when the data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.

Nunavut was created on April 1, 1999. Prior to that date, data for Nunavut were included with data for the Northwest Territories. This creates a break in series for the Northwest Territories in 1999/2000.

Data source

Registered Apprenticeship Information System, 1994 and 2004, Statistics Canada.

Public colleges and institutes

Table D.1.4

This second subset of Indicator D1 (enrolment in postsecondary education) provides data on full-time student enrolment at public colleges and institutes in Canada and at the provincial/territorial level (Table D.1.4). It also presents information on the percentage of female enrolment relative to the enrolment for both sexes. The data, which reflect headcounts, are reported by sex for the 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 academic years.

Concepts and definitions

The information presented in this sub-indicator reflects enrolment for publicly funded colleges and institutes only. Universities are excluded. Colleges and institutes are institutions created under the authority of either a province’s Colleges Act or equivalent, or under a Societies Act or equivalent, with education as a primary purpose. These institutions are created primarily to offer certificate, diploma, and transfer or continuing education and professional development programs of three years or less. They generally require high school completion for admissions.

Public college and institute enrolment from the Survey of Colleges and Institutes (SCI) includes the following categories: (1) all students registered for programs that are eligible for academic credit in a diploma or certificate program or in a university transfer program, and students registered in co-op programs who are on a work assignment at the time of survey; (2) students registered for diplomas or certificates awarded by a professional body if such programs form part of the regular offerings of the institution; (3) students registered in pre-employment or pre-apprenticeship vocational programs designed to provide training for occupations in which the student has had little or no prior preparation; (4) students in registered apprenticeship programs leading to a journeyperson status in a number of designated trades that fall under that direction of a provincial department of labour (or its equivalent).

Students registered in the following programs are excluded: (1) pre-vocational academic upgrading or basic training for skill development (BTSD) programs designed to upgrade the knowledge and skill for further training or employment; (2) language training programs consisting primarily of second language courses designed to give the student a basic understanding and working knowledge of English or French; (3) skill upgrading programs designed to instruct students in new occupational methods and techniques; (4) Job readiness training programs designed to increase the employability of students wanting to enter or re-enter the labour force; (5) orientation programs designed to guide students into trade or vocational occupations and provide them with job search skills; (6) Special training or other programs that do not fit into one of the predefined categories.

Headcount refers to the number of students registered at the reporting institution.

Career programs consist of certificate and diploma programs offered at community colleges and similar institutions. A secondary school completion or equivalent is the normal prerequisite for entry into the program. The length of the programs can range from one year to several years, with the one-year programs leading to a certificate and the longer ones to a diploma.

University transfer programs at community colleges and university colleges provide a student with a standing equivalent to the first or second year of a university degree program with which one can apply for admission to subsequent senior years at a degree-granting institution.

Methodology

The Survey of Colleges and Institutes (SCI) is a provisional survey, first conducted by Statistics Canada for the 2003/2004 reference year. In this survey, aggregate enrolment and graduate data (Table D.2.5) pertaining to publicly funded colleges and institutes are collected from the ministries and departments of education in Canada, who had originally collected these data for their own purposes. SCI data were used to provide the enrolment information for the 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 academic years.

The SCI differs from other enrolment and graduate surveys conducted by Statistics Canada, such as the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) and the surveys it replaced, as enrolment and graduate data are obtained from individual student records that are maintained by public colleges and institutes.

The Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) is a census with a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal follow-up. Data are collected for all units of the target population, therefore no sampling is done. The target population is Canadian public postsecondary institutions (universities, community colleges and trade and vocational training centres). Each postsecondary institution (the “collection unit”) provides Statistics Canada with data pertaining to their programs and their students.

For jurisdictions that do not hold information on enrolments from public colleges and institutes in their databases, the data required are obtained directly from the colleges or are generated from the data originally submitted to PSIS.

Limitations

There is no commonly accepted definition for the registration status of full-time students, and it is defined by the reporting postsecondary institutes.

As the Survey of Colleges and Institutes is intended to be a provisional survey gathering generic data, the variables available for further describing enrolments in colleges and institutes are very limited. These limitations are also related to the type of information held by the ministries and departments of education on their databases.

Data sources

Survey of Colleges and Institutes, Statistics Canada.

Postsecondary Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Community College Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Trade/Vocational Enrolment Survey, Statistics Canada.

Universities

Tables D.1.5 and D.1.6

This third subset of Indicator D1, which portrays postsecondary enrolment, provides data for the university level. Information is presented for Canada and the provinces, by sex and registration status (full- and part-time students) (Table D.1.5). The percentage of male enrolment relative to total full-time university enrolment, at the national and provincial levels, is also examined (Table D.1.6).

Concepts and definitions

The figures on university enrolment are from the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS), an annual survey that provides detailed information on enrolments and graduates of Canadian postsecondary institutions.

The numbers and percentages for university enrolment reflect the academic year, September 1 to August 31.

Registration status captures full- and part-time students, as defined by the reporting institutions.

Methodology

The Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) is a census with a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal follow-up. Data are collected for all units of the target population, therefore no sampling is done. The target population is Canadian public postsecondary institutions (universities, community colleges and trade and vocational training centres). Each postsecondary institution (the “collection unit”) provides Statistics Canada with data pertaining to their programs and their students.

In 2000, PSIS began replacing several postsecondary surveys, including the University Student Information System (USIS), with a single survey offering common variables for all levels of postsecondary education. Upon full implementation, PSIS will capture annual enrolment and graduate information from all Canadian public postsecondary institutions.

Limitations

There is no commonly accepted definition for the registration status of full-time and part-time students, and it is defined by the reporting postsecondary institutes.

Following a major change in policy, 2002/2003 was the last year for Grade 13 in Ontario. One immediate consequence of this change was the “double cohort” of students entering the postsecondary system in 2003/2004. The double cohort comprised the last graduating class from the old system with the extra year and the first graduating class from the new system.

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data (Tables D.1.5 and D.1.6). As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.

Data source

Postsecondary Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

D2 Postsecondary completions and graduation rates

Registered apprenticeship completions

Tables D.2.1 and D.2.2

Overall, Indicator D2 examines trends in postsecondary completions/graduations. This sub-indicator presents information on the number of individuals completing registered apprenticeship programs in Canada and its jurisdictions (Table D.2.1), including breakdowns by sex and major trade group (Table D.2.2).

Concepts and definitions

The information on registered apprenticeship completions is based on data provided by provincial/territorial apprenticeship branches and covers registered apprentices who have completed their program and received either an interprovincial or provincial certificate. This information is collected the Registered Apprenticeship Information System (RAIS), an annual survey that gathers information on individuals who receive training and those who obtain certification within a trade where apprenticeship training is being offered; specifically, the number of registered apprentices taking in-class and on-the-job training in trades that are either Red Seal or non-Red Seal and where apprenticeship training is either compulsory or voluntary. It also compiles data on the number of provincial and interprovincial certificates granted to apprentices or tradespersons.

The RAIS also collects information on tradespersons; that is, individuals who receive a trade qualifier certificate in a trade for which apprenticeship is voluntary. This means that they did not register for or complete apprenticeship training, but succeeded in obtaining certification within that trade. However, data on such individuals who obtain certification without completing a registered apprenticeship program are not included in Tables D.2.1 and D.2.2.

This sub-indicator presents the number of registered apprenticeship completions, by sex, for the following major trade groups: building construction; electrical, electronics and related; food and service; industrial and related mechanical; metal fabricating; motor vehicle and heavy equipment; and other. The “other” group consists of miscellaneous trades and occupations not classified elsewhere. Many of the trades and occupations that have been newly established since the 1990s have been added to this group; for example, child and youth worker and early childhood educator, as well as set dresser and assistant cameraperson.

Methodology

The Registered Apprenticeship Information System (RAIS) survey is a census; that is, data are collected for all units of the target population and no sampling is done. Response is mandatory and data are collected directly from respondents and extracted from administrative files. The information is requested in individual record format and each record represents a registered apprentice. The reference period is the calendar year; the collection period is February through September of the year after the reference year.

Limitations

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data. As a result, when the data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.

Nunavut was created on April 1, 1999. Prior to that date, data for Nunavut were included with data for the Northwest Territories. This creates a break in the series for the Northwest Territories in 1999/2000.

In PCEIP, graduation rates are presented by level of postsecondary education with the exception of registered apprenticeship programs. This is because the graduation rates used relate the number of graduates at a specific level of study to the total population at the typical age of graduation; however, this cannot be applied to registered apprenticeship programs as there is no expected age at graduation for this level of study.

Data source

Registered Apprenticeship Information System, 1994 and 2004, Statistics Canada.

College diplomas/certificates and university degrees

Tables D.2.3 and D.2.4

Overall, Indicator D2 examines trends in postsecondary completions/graduations. This sub-indicator presents information on the number of college diplomas/certificates and university degrees granted, at the national level, from 1976 through 2004 (Table D.2.3). It also shows graduation rates for Canada and the provinces/territories, by level of postsecondary education, from 1991 through 2004 (Table D.2.4).

Concepts and definitions

The data source for the number of college diplomas and certificates granted and graduation rates from college programs is the Community College Student Information System (CCSIS).

Diplomas and certificates granted by colleges cover those granted for postsecondary programs of public community colleges and similar institutes. The types of program collected by the survey consist of career and university transfer/university level programs at community colleges, CEGEPs, technical institutes and university colleges. A secondary school completion or equivalent is the normal prerequisite for entry into the postsecondary programs covered by this survey. “Général” programs at Quebec institutions, the completion of which is a prerequisite for entry into universities, are included in this classification.

The data sources for the number of university degrees granted and graduation rates for university-level programs are the University Student Information System (USIS), for 1976 to 1999, and the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS), from 2000 onwards. (PSIS was previously referred to as the Enhanced Student Information System.) The data cover university degrees from public universities in Canada.

Information on the number of university degrees granted and graduation rates are broken down according to the following levels of study: bachelor’s and first professional degrees; master’s degrees; and earned doctorate degrees. The “total” category excludes university diplomas/certificates below or above the bachelor’s degree. This is different than what is shown in Table D.2.7, which shows the number of degrees, diplomas and certificates granted by universities.

Methodology

Statistics Canada has been collecting enrolment and completions data from postsecondary institutions since the 1970s. The surveys used to collect these data were the University Student Information System (USIS), the Community College Student Information System (CCSIS) and the Trade/Vocational Enrolment Survey (TVOC). In 2000, Statistics Canada began to phase out and replace these surveys with PSIS, a single survey offering common variables for all levels of postsecondary institutions.

PSIS is a census (as were USIS, CCSIS and TVOC) in that it extracts data from all the individual student files held for administrative purposes by postsecondary institutions.

For college and university programs, graduation rates have been calculated by relating the number of graduates to the size of the population at a typical graduation age. The typical ages at graduation by program are:  college – 21; bachelor’s and first professional degrees – 22; master’s degrees – 24; and earned doctorate degrees - 27.

Graduation rates are based on jurisdiction of study and include foreign students. Canadian students who obtain a certificate/diploma from a foreign institution are excluded.

The reference period for college diplomas and certificates is from August 1 of the previous year to July 31 of the current year.

The reference period for university degrees is the day after the last day of the winter semester.

Limitations

The graduation rates presented in PCEIP should not be confused with a graduation rate that shows graduates as a proportion of enrolment.

Initial start-up problems with implementing PSIS among the institutions, along with delays at Statistics Canada in processing the college-level data collected by PSIS, has limited that data available for the 2007 PCEIP report. Hence, in Tables D.2.3 and D.2.4, no information beyond 1999 is presented.

Data on college graduates from CCSIS should not be compared directly with more recent college completions data from the Survey of Colleges and Institutes (Table D.2.5) as there are differences in the coverage of graduations between these two surveys.

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded.

Data sources

University Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Postsecondary Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Community College Information System, Statistics Canada.

Recent college graduates, aggregate data

Table D.2.5

Overall, Indicator D2 examines trends in postsecondary completions/graduations. This sub-indicator provides information on the number of students who graduated from public colleges and institutes in 2003/2004 and 2004/2005, by the type of credential granted and by sex (Table D.2.5). The source of these data is the Survey of Colleges and Institutes, a provisional survey of aggregate data conducted by the Centre for Education Statistics at Statistics Canada.

Concepts and definitions

The information presented in this sub-indicator is based on data from the Survey of Colleges and Institutes and reflects publicly funded colleges and institutes only. Universities are excluded. Colleges and institutes are institutions created under the authority of either a province’s Colleges Act or equivalent, or under a Societies Act or equivalent, with education as a primary purpose. These institutions are created primarily to offer certificate, diploma, and transfer or continuing education and professional development programs of three years or less. They generally require high school completion for admissions.

Graduates represent those individuals who graduated or completed the requirements for certificates, diplomas or degrees between August 1 of the previous year and July 31 of the current year. Excluded are: graduates from private postsecondary education institutions, completers of continuing education programs (unless these lead to a certificate, diploma or applied degree), part-time trade course completers, persons who completed vocational programs lasting less than three months, persons who completed vocational programs other than in the skilled trades (e.g., basic training and skill development), persons who completed university transfer programs and completers of provincial apprenticeship programs. (These are captured by the Registered Apprenticeship Information System, based on information from provincial/territorial governments.)

Methodology

The Survey of Colleges and Institutes (SCI) is a provisional survey, first conducted by Statistics Canada for the 2003/2004 reference year. In this survey, aggregate enrolment and graduate data pertaining to publicly-funded colleges and institutes are collected from the ministries and departments of education in Canada, who had originally collected these data for their own purposes.

The SCI differs from other enrolment and graduates surveys conducted by Statistics Canada, such as the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) and the surveys it replaced, as enrolment and graduate data are obtained from individual student records that are maintained by public colleges and institutes.

For jurisdictions that do not hold information on graduates from public colleges and institutes in their databases, the data required are obtained directly from the colleges or are generated from the data originally submitted to the Postsecondary Student Information System.

Limitations

Data on college graduates from the Survey of Colleges and Institutes should not be compared directly with past data from the Community College Student Information System (Tables D.2.3 and D.2.4) as there are differences in the coverage of graduates between these two surveys.

As the SCI is intended to be a provisional survey gathering generic data, the variables available for further describing graduates from colleges and institutes are very limited. These limitations are also related to the type of information held by the ministries and departments of education on their databases.

A historical time series of data on graduates of public colleges and institutes (from 1999 onwards) broken out by more detailed variables is dependent on the possibility of producing historical revisions to the college data that have been traditionally collected by Statistics Canada from individual student records using PSIS and the surveys that it has replaced.

Data sources

Survey of Colleges and Institutes, Statistics Canada.

Postsecondary Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Community College Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

Trade/Vocational Enrolment Survey, Statistics Canada.

University graduates by field of study

Tables D.2.6 through D.2.8

Overall, Indicator D2 examines trends in postsecondary completions/graduations. This sub-indicator examines the number of university credentials granted and graduation rates, by sex and by field of study (Tables D.2.6 through D.2.8). It is based on data from the Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS).

Concepts and definitions

Information on university graduation rates by sex and field of study (Table D.2.6) is broken down according to the following levels of study: bachelor’s and first professional degrees; master’s degrees; and earned doctorate degrees.

PSIS classifies field of study data according to the Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP), the official classification used at Statistics Canada for the classification of program(s) of study. This sub-indicator presents university graduation rates and the number of university degree/diplomas/certificates granted by the following agglomerated CIP categories: education; visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; social and behavioural sciences and law; physical and life sciences, and technologies; mathematics, computer and information sciences; architecture, engineering and related technologies; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; business, management and public administration; health, parks, recreation and fitness; and other.

Methodology

The Postsecondary Student Information System (PSIS) is a census with a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal follow-up. Data are collected for all units of the target population, therefore no sampling is done. The target population is Canadian public postsecondary institutions (universities, community colleges and trade and vocational training centres). Each postsecondary institution (the “collection unit”) provides Statistics Canada with data pertaining to their programs and their students.

In 2000, PSIS began replacing several postsecondary surveys, including the University Student Information System (USIS), with a single survey offering common variables for all levels of postsecondary education. Upon full implementation, PSIS will capture annual enrolment and graduate information from all Canadian public postsecondary institutions.

Graduation rates have been calculated by relating the number of graduates to the size of the population at a typical graduation age. The typical ages at graduation for university-level programs that have been used in this publication are: bachelor’s and first professional degree – 22; master’s degrees – 24; and earned doctorate degrees - 27.

Graduation rates are based on jurisdiction of study and include foreign students. Canadian students who obtain a degree from a foreign institution are excluded.

Table D.2.7 shows the number of degrees, diplomas, and certificates granted by universities. This is different than what is shown in Table D.2.4 and D.2.6, where university diplomas and certificates above or below the bachelor’s level are excluded.

The reference period for university degrees is the day after the last day of the winter semester.

Limitations

The graduation rates presented in this publication should not be confused with a graduation rate that shows graduates as a proportion of enrolment.

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded.

Data source

Postsecondary Student Information System, Statistics Canada.

D3 University educators

Tables D.3.1 through D.3.4

Indicator D3 presents information on university educators in Canada and the provinces. It outlines the number of full-time university educators, providing breakdowns by rank and by sex (Tables D.3.1). The male-female distribution of educators, by age, is also examined (Table D.3.2), as well as the age distribution of educators compared with that of the overall labour force (Table D.3.3). Average salaries, by rank and by sex, are also presented (Table D.3.4).

Concepts and definitions

Full-time university educators refers to all full-time teaching staff employed in universities in Canada.

Full-time includes:

staff appointed on a full-time basis whose term of appointment is not less than 12 months (including any staff member on leave);

new appointees hired on a full-time basis (i.e., whose term of contract is greater than 12 months) and who are at the institution for less than 12 months in the first year; and

staff who were appointed to teach 12 months or more and at a later date entered into a formal agreement with the institution to work on a reduced load basis. This situation usually arises with staff members who are approaching retirement.

Teaching staff refers to:

all teachers within faculties, whether or not they hold an academic rank;

academic staff in teaching hospitals;

visiting academic staff in faculties; and

research staff who have an academic rank and a salary scale similar to teaching staff.

In Table D.3.4, the definition of full-time university educators is similar to that used in Tables D.3.1, D.3.2 and D.3.3, but excludes staff who are on unpaid leave, all religious and military personnel or similar staff paid according to salary scales lower than those applying to regular/lay staff and staff having a salary of zero or unreported.

The following academic ranks are used:

Full professors, referring to the most senior rank;

Associate professors, the mid-level rank ( requirements vary considerably between institutions and departments); and

Other, which generally refers to assistant professors, lecturers and instructors. The specific categories are:

Assistant professors - an entry-level rank;

Rank below assistant professors - the next rank directly below that of an assistant professor (usually lecturers);

Rank below preceding -the remaining full-time teachers(usually instructors); and

Other teaching staff - ungraded (i.e., have no rank) staff such as coaches, etc.

Gender gap is defined as the average salary of female university educators as a percentage of the average of males.

Methodology

The data on full-time university educators present a snapshot as of October 1.

The percentage distribution of university educators by age and median age is based on educators for whom age is known.

Salaries and salary scales of full-time teaching staff at Canadian universities are based on the annual rate of salary plus stipends. The data have been adjusted to 2001 constant dollars using the Consumer Price Index.

Data on average salaries for Saskatchewan do not include the University of Saskatchewan.

The Labour Force Survey data used to compare the age distribution of the overall full-time employed labour force with that of full-time university educators is based on a monthly average from September to August (Table D.3.3).

Limitations

To ensure the confidentiality of responses, a random rounding process is applied to the data. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.

Data sources

University and College Academic Staff Survey, Statistics Canada.

Labour Force Survey, 2004/2005, Statistics Canada.

D4 Research and development

Tables D.4.1 through D.4.5

Indicator D4 presents information on research and development (R&D) conducted in universities in Canada, using data from 1991 through 2004. Total domestic expenditures on R&D as a percentage of GDP are examined from an international and national perspective (Tables D.4.1 and D.4.2), along with percentages of total R&D by sector (Table D.4.3). National and provincial expenditures on R&D are outlined (Table D.4.4), as are sources of funding (Table D.4.5).

Concepts and definitions

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Frascati Manual¹ indicates that research and development (R&D) is considered to be any creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of scientific and technical knowledge and to use this knowledge in new applications. The central characteristic of R&D is an appreciable element of novelty and of uncertainty. New knowledge, products or processes are sought. The work is normally performed by, or under the supervision of, persons with postgraduate degrees in the natural sciences or engineering. An R&D project generally has three characteristics: a substantial element of uncertainty, novelty and innovation; a well-defined project design; a report on the procedures and results of the projects.

Total domestic expenditures on R&D (Tables D.4.1 through D.4.3) represent the aggregate of the total R&D expenditures of the performing sectors (categorized as government, business enterprise, higher education, private non-profit organizations, and foreign). It includes R&D performed within a country and funded from abroad but excludes payments for R&D performed abroad.

The definition of total domestic expenditures on R&D in a provincial/territorial context is similar to that provided above. The expenditures are assigned to the province or territory in which the performing establishment is located. Personnel may live in an adjoining province or territory (e.g., the National Capital Region) and materials and equipment may come from another province or territory or country; these factors must be taken into consideration when using this statistic as a provincial/territorial indicator of R&D activity.

Indirect costs of research are those costs incurred by an institution by virtue of the fact that researchers conduct sponsored or intramural research with the support of the institution. They are expenditures that cannot be identified readily and specifically with a particular project, instructional or other activity of the institution; e.g., the costs of the office of research or intellectual property management services, departmental administration, utilities, physical plant operation and maintenance, library, laboratory furniture, and permanent equipment.

Source of funds for university R&D are categorized as follows:

Federal government, through the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and federal departments and agencies;

Provincial governments, including municipal governments;

Business enterprises, including donations, bequests and contracts from individuals and businesses;

Private non-profit organizations, including donations, bequests, and contracts from foundations and not-for-profit organizations;

Foreign sources - funding entities located abroad; and

Universities, which fund their own R&D using two revenue streams:

General university funds: These represent government transfers (or block grants) to universities that are used to support R&D activity. Although in essence these funds represent indirect government spending on R&D, for the purposes of pan-Canadian statistics they are allocated to university funding due to the difficulty of categorizing these funds as provincial or federal.

Own revenue sources: This refers to self-generated revenue of universities from sources such as tuition fees, investment income, revenue from sales of services and products by the institution and license and patent incomes.

Sponsorship of university R&D refers to university research that is supported either in the form of a grant or by means of a contract from a source external to the institution. Funding sources include government, business enterprises, and donors.

Methodology

University expenditures on R&D (Table D.4.4) are estimated by the Science Innovation and Electronic Information Division (SIEID) of Statistics Canada. This estimation assumes that these expenditures are equal to the sum of:

sponsored research, available from the Canadian Association of University Business Officers (CAUBO) survey;

an estimate of indirect expenditures on sponsored research;

a value for the fraction of faculty time devoted to research;

an estimate of indirect expenditures related to faculty time on research; and

teaching hospitals data not included in the CAUBO survey.

A revised estimation procedure was implemented for the 1998/1999 data, with some revisions to faculty time coefficients on research in 1999/2000. (For more detail, see Science Statistics, Volume 30, No. 5 (Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 88-001-XIE2006005).

The figures for total domestic expenditures on R&D (Tables D.4.1 through D.4.3) in Quebec and Ontario exclude expenditures for R&D performed by the federal government in the National Capital Region. This is a standard practice followed by Statistics Canada as not all expenditures made by an R&D unit are spent in the region of its physical location (e.g., supplies may be purchased from regions outside the unit’s location). In the case of the National Capital Region, labour moves freely between Quebec and Ontario so that even wages and salaries paid by an R&D unit are partly spent outside the area of location. Further information on this approach, along with the values of these expenditures, is available in a Statistics Canada’s working paper, “Estimates of Canadian Research and Development Expenditure (GERD), Canada, 1995 to 2006, and by Province 1995 to 2004”(Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 88F0006XIE2006009).

The figures for Canada include federal government expenditures contributed in the National Capital Region.

The one-time grant to universities awarded by the federal government to assist in indirect costs associated with research activities taking place at universities is included in the expenditures on R&D by the university sector ($203 million in 2001/2002 and $21 million in 2002/2003). In 2003/2004, the indirect costs grant for R&D in universities became an annual payment. The estimation system used to calculate indirect costs on sponsored research was adjusted to ensure that the source of this payment is the federal government.

The R&D data are for universities and affiliated institutions including research hospitals. In 2002, there was an increase over previous years in the number of teaching hospitals for which data were reported to Statistics Canada. In 2002/2003, this reporting change is especially relevant in Quebec and British Columbia.

Table D.4.1 and Chart D.4.1 compare Canada with all OECD countries. To facilitate the international discussion, subsequent comparisons make use of the G-7 and Sweden, Finland and Iceland—non-G-7 competitor countries to Canada that are leaders among the OECD countries in terms of the level of resources that they devote to R&D and thereby serve as useful reference points.

The GDP Implicit Price Index is used to convert current R&D expenditures and sources of funds to constant (real) dollars, which differs from the Consumer Price Index (CPI) used in Chapter B. A GDP deflator is the appropriate deflator for economy-wide statistics because it accounts for the cost of goods for households, for government and for industry. CPI only accounts for a basket of goods that an average household might purchase and so is relevant to household expenditures data.

The source of the GDP implicit price index is Statistics Canada’s CANSIM Table 384-0036 (1997=100) (accessed October 2006). For PCEIP, this index was rebased to 2001=100 by dividing the series for Canada and the provinces by the 2001 factor. The year 2001 was chosen as the base year for constant (real) dollar conversion to preserve consistency between PCEIP tables and historical comparability. A different base year may be used for R&D data series that are published by other divisions at Statistics Canada.

The values expressed in constant (real) dollars for the university R&D expenditures and for the sources of funds for university R&D expenditures at the Canada-level do not match the sum of the provincial values. This is because (constant) real series based on a chain Fisher calculation are geometric and therefore not additive. On May 31, 2001, the quarterly income and expenditure accounts adopted the Fisher index formula, chained quarterly, as the official measure of real gross domestic product in terms of expenditures. This formula was also adopted for the Provincial Accounts on October 31, 2002. Contact Income and Expenditure Accounts Division at Statistics Canada for more information.

Limitations

One of the most important issues relating to R&D concerns its definition. There remains some ambiguity in defining precisely what constitutes R&D; for example, in a continuing project, determining the precise point at which the project passes the boundary of R&D and becomes exploitation of a process or product on which it may be said that the R&D stage has been completed. This ambiguity is perhaps less serious in internal time series, where it may be expected that the year-to-year application of the definition by the same reporting unit is at least consistent.

The source for internationally comparative statistics on R&D is the OECD. OECD guidelines request that R&D in the entire postsecondary sector (defined as all universities, colleges of technology, and other institutes of postsecondary education, whatever their source of finance or legal status) be reported. However, data for Canada are limited to R&D activities in universities and affiliated institutions (including research hospitals) and degree-granting university colleges as data on R&D in colleges and similar institutions are not available.

Although the OECD is working to improve the international reporting of R&D statistics, other comparability issues exist; therefore, it is important that the reader exercise caution in interpreting these statistics.

Data sources

Main Science and Technology Indicators, 2006, No. 1, June 2006, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Estimates of Canadian Research and Development Expenditures (GERD), Canada, 1995 to 2006, and by Province 1994 to 2004, Catalogue No. 88F0006XIE2006009, Statistics Canada.

Science and Technology Surveys Section, Science, Innovation and Electronic Information Division, Statistics Canada.

Total spending on research and development in Canada, 1990 to 2006, and provinces, 1990 to 2004, Vol. 30, No. 7, Catalogue No. 88-0001XIE, Statistics Canada.

CANSIM, Tables 358-0001, 384-0002, and 384-0036, Statistics Canada.

Endnote

1. The Frascati Manual is a document that lays out the methodology for collecting and using statistics about research and development in countries that are members of the OECD. For more information see www.oecd.org.

D5 Literacy–proficiency scores and levels

Tables D.5.1 through D.5.7

Indicator D5 is based on data from the International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS), which measured Canadians’ proficiency in literacy, numeracy and problem-solving. This indicator presents the skills distributions of the population in the provinces and territories (Table D.5.1), examining urban/rural status (Table D.5.2), age group and sex (Table D.5.3), educational attainment (Table D.5.4), and employment rates (Table D.5.5). This indicator also presents the literacy skills distribution of a sample of Aboriginal people living in urban Manitoba and urban Saskatchewan (Table D.5.6), in the Northwest Territories and the Yukon Territory, as well as the Inuit Population in Nunavut (Table D.5.7).

Concepts and definitions

In 2003, IALSS assessed adult literacy across four domains:  prose literacy (the knowledge and skills needed to understand and use information from texts including editorials, news stories, brochures, and instruction manuals); document literacy (the knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in various formats, including job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, maps, tables and charts); numeracy (the knowledge and skills needed to effectively manage the mathematical demands of diverse situations); and problem-solving (goal-directed thinking and action in situations for which no routine solutions exist).

In each of the four literacy domains, five levels are used to categorize proficiency. Level 1 denotes the lowest proficiency level; Level 5, the highest. Level 3 is generally considered the “desired” threshold of competence for being able to cope with the increasing skill demands of today’s knowledge-based economy.

When proficiency is examined by age group, the following categories are used: 16 to 25; 26 to 35; 36 to 45; 46 to 55; 56 to 65; and 66 and over.

An urban area has a minimum population concentration of 1,000 persons and a population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre, based on the current census population count. All territory outside urban areas is classified as rural.

According to the standard Statistics Canada definition, the employed are people who have a job or business; the unemployed are those without work, available for work, and actively seeking work. Together the unemployed and the employed constitute the labour force. The employment rate for a particular group is the number of employed in that group expressed as a percentage of the population for that group.

The following educational attainment categories are used:  high school not completed; high school; trade-vocational; non-university postsecondary; and university.

For IALSS, Aboriginal identity was measured by asking respondents if they were an Aboriginal person; that is North American Indian, Métis or Inuit.

References made to the non-Aboriginal population of Manitoba and Saskatchewan includes respondents from urban and non-urban areas. The totals presented in Tables D.5.6 refer to the entire Manitoban or Saskatchewan population aged 16 and over.

Methodology

More than 23,000 individuals aged 16 and over from across the 10 provinces and 3 territories participated in the 2003 IALSS. This number was sufficient to provide accurate estimates for all of Canada’s jurisdictions. Moreover, the sample of Aboriginal people living in urban areas in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and in selected communities in the territories, was large enough to provide estimates for those groups. Both Manitoba and Saskatchewan opted to increase the IALSS sample size in their provinces to allow creation of estimates for the relatively large urban Aboriginal populations.

Results are reported along four scales—the two literacy scales (prose and document), a single numeracy scale, and a scale capturing problem-solving. The scores for each scale range from 0 to 500 points. To display the progression of complexity and difficulty, each scale was divided into levels. Both the literacy and numeracy scales used five levels:  Level 1, the lowest level of proficiency (score 0 to 225); Level 2 (226 to 275); Level 3 (276 to 325); Level 4 (326 to 375); and Level 5, the highest level of proficiency (376 to 500). The scale for problem-solving used four levels:  Level 1, the lowest (0 to 250); Level 2 (251 to 300); Level 3 (301 to 350); and Level 4, the highest (351 to 500).

Limitations

The proficiency levels used for IALSS are useful in summarizing the results, but also have some limitations. First, the relatively small proportions of respondents who actually reach Level 5 do not always allow for accurate reporting. For this reason, whenever results are presented by proficiency level, Levels 4 and 5 are combined.

Second, the average proficiency values were computed from the scores of random samples of respondents from each jurisdiction across Canada and not from the entire population in each jurisdiction. Consequently, it cannot be said with certainty that a sample average has the same value as a population average that would have been obtained had all residents been assessed. Additionally, a degree of error is associated with the scores describing a respondent’s proficiency as these scores are estimates based on responses to a sample of test items. The standard error is used to express the degree of uncertainty associated with the sample error and the measurement error of the test.

Although IALSS data are not representative of the total Aboriginal population in Canada, they do provide a unique opportunity to examine the literacy proficiency of a portion of the Aboriginal population in Canada.

Data sources

International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey, 2003, Statistics Canada.

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada and Statistics Canada. 2005. Building on our Competencies: Canadian Results of the International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey 2003. Catalogue No. 89-617-XIE. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada and Statistics Canada. Ottawa.

D6 Educational attainment

Tables D.6.1 through D.6.6

Indicator D6 examines the level of educational attainment for the Canadian population aged 25 to 64 from a national and international perspective. Data are presented for Canada and the other OECD countries, and for the provinces and territories (Table D.6.1). Information is also presented for the population aged 25 to 64 with Aboriginal identity, by age group (Table D.6.2) and by sex (Table D.6.5), and for the off-reserve Aboriginal population from Western Canada (Table D.6.3). The indicator also uses census data to portray the distribution of the Canadian population by level of education and age group (Table D.6.4), and examines the levels by sex, presenting numbers, percentage changes, and percentage distributions (Table D.6.6), for Canada and its jurisdictions.

Concepts and definitions

Overall, this indicator focuses on the population aged 25 to 64, often considered to be the working age population. This age group is further categorized as 25 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 to 54, and 55 to 64 for some of the information presented (Tables D.6.2 and D.6.4).

Educational attainment refers to the highest level of education completed; it is sometimes used as a proxy measure of human capital. The international comparisons (Table D.6.1) are based on the 2006 edition of the OECD’s publication Education at a Glance (EAG). The following categories, which reflect the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 97) in EAG Table A 3.1a, are presented:

Less than college: ISCED 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (below tertiary-type B education);

College: ISCED 5B (tertiary-type B education); and

University: ISCED 5A/6 (tertiary-type A and advanced research programmes).

Equivalent data on educational attainment for Canada are derived from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and reflect the following definitions:

Less than college: no education or education below high school graduation; high school graduation or some postsecondary education (not completed); trade certificate or diploma from a vocational school or apprenticeship training;

College: non-university certificate or diploma from a community college, CEGEP, school of nursing and similar programs at this level; university certificate below bachelor’s level; and

University: bachelor’s degree; university degree or certificate above bachelor’s degree.

The population distributions for Canada and its jurisdictions (Tables D.6.2, D.6.4, D.6.5 and D.6.6) are presented for the following five levels of educational attainment, derived from the Census of Population:

Less than high school: individuals having no education or education below high school graduation;

High school: high school graduates and individuals who have some postsecondary education (not completed);

Trade-vocational: graduates of trade-vocational programs;

College: graduates of community colleges, CEGEPs, schools of nursing and similar programs at this level; and

University: individuals with a university degree or certificate (below or above a bachelor’s degree).

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is a multidisciplinary international body made up of 30 member countries that offers a structure/forum for governments to consult and co-operate with each other to develop and refine economic and social policy. The OECD is best known for its publications and statistics. The member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Table D.6.1).

Aboriginal identity refers to people who, on the Census of Population, reported identifying with at least one Aboriginal group (North American Indian, Métis or Inuit) (Tables D.6.2 and D.6.5). Also included in the Aboriginal identity population counts are individuals who did not report an Aboriginal identity, but did report being a Registered or Treaty Indian, and/or Band of First Nation membership (“not included elsewhere” category). Registered Indian status refers to those who reported they were registered under the Indian Act. Treaty Indians are persons who are registered under the Indian Act and can prove descent from a Band that signed a treaty. The term “treaty Indian” is more widely used in the Prairie provinces.

The term North American Indian is used for individuals who self-identify as such and broadly refers to people who consider themselves part of the First Nations in Canada, whether or not they have legal Indian status according to the Indian Act. Métis refers to people who are of mixed Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal ancestry who self-identify as Métis. Inuitrefers to people descended from Aboriginal people who historically inhabited the Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska, Greenland and Russia, and who self-identify with this group.

Western Canada comprises Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia (Table D.6.3).

Methodology

Statistics Canada’s monthly Labour Force Survey (LFS) is a major source of information on educational attainment. When the 2007 version of PCEIP was being prepared, the LFS contained four direct questions on education. Question ED_Q04 asked respondents for the highest degree, certificate or diploma obtained. Responses were categorized into the following levels of educational attainment: (1) no postsecondary degree, certificate or diploma; (2) trade certificate or diploma from vocational school or apprenticeship training; (3) non-university certificate or diploma from a community college, CEGEP, school of nursing, etc; (4) university certificate below bachelor’s level; (5) bachelor’s degree; (6) university degree or certificate above bachelor’s degree.

Tertiary-Type-A education and advanced research programs are categories of educational levels typically used in the OECD’s publication Education at a Glance (EAG). Tertiary-Type-A programs (ISCED 5A) have a minimum cumulative theoretical duration (at tertiary level) of three years’ full-time equivalent, although they typically last four or more years. These programs are not exclusively offered at universities. Advanced research programs (ISCED 6, EAG 2006) lead directly to an advanced research qualification, e.g., a PhD. The theoretical duration of these programs is three years full-time in most countries (for a cumulative total of at least seven years full-time equivalent at the tertiary level), although the actual enrolment time is typically longer. The programs are devoted to advanced study and original research.. In Canada, tertiary-type-A is equivalent to a bachelor’s degree, a university degree or a certificate above the bachelor degree level (PCEIP 2007 Table D.6.1).

Tertiary-Type-B programs (ISCED 5B, EAG 2006) are typically shorter than those in the Type-A group, and they focus on practical, technical or occupational skills for direct entry into the labour market. Some theoretical foundations may be covered. They have a minimum duration of two years’ full-time equivalent at the tertiary level. In Canada, tertiary-type-B education is equivalent to a non-university certificate or diploma from a community college, CEGEP, school of nursing or similar program at this level, and a university certificate below the bachelor degree level (PCEIP 2007 Table D.6.1).

The Census of Population, like the LFS, provides detailed information on education, although the questions asked differ. In 2001, Question 30 asked about certificates, diplomas or degrees ever obtained, and the responses were categorized as: (1) no degree, certificate or diploma; (2) secondary (high) school graduation certificate or equivalent; (3) trades certificate or diploma; (4) other non-university certificate or diploma; (5) university certificate or diploma below bachelor level; (6) bachelor’s degree; (7) university certificate or diploma above bachelor level; (8) degree in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine or optometry; (9) master’s degree; (10) earned doctorate.

The data on educational attainment for the Canadian jurisdictions in Table D.6.1 were aggregated using the 6 LFS levels. The categories used in Table D.6.2 were aggregated based on the 10 educational levels outlined in the census. “University certificate below bachelor’s degree” was included in the “college” category for the LFS (Table D.6.1), but was included in the “university” category for the census (Table D.6.2).

In Table D.6.1, the OECD averages for the “college” and “university” categories are not available since attainment at the tertiary level was not disaggregated for the following six member countries: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. The 25% average for “college or university” is from Table A1.3a in the 2006 edition of Education at a Glance. The 75% average for the “less than college category,” which was calculated by Statistics Canada using the methodology recommended by the OECD, is a simple average of all 30 OECD member countries.

The percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had attained a specific level of education was obtained by dividing the number of people aged 25 to 64 who had completed the given level of education by the total number of people aged 25 to 64, then multiplying by 100.

Nunavut was created in April 1999. Prior to that date, data for Nunavut were included with data for the Northwest Territories. The data for Nunavut in 1996 was taken from the Northwest Territories based on the 2001 Census boundary for Nunavut.

Limitations

Because the LFS questions on Aboriginal self-identification in all four provinces of Western Canada (Table D.6.3) were added to the survey in April 2004, the 2004 data are based on a nine-month average from April to December 2004. These data allow comparisons across the off-reserve Aboriginal population from Western Canada, but are not directly comparable with LFS-based data for the general population, or with census-based data for the Aboriginal population.

The LFS information on educational attainment does not allow for a clear delineation between “postsecondary non-tertiary education” and “tertiary-type B education”. As a result, the LFS figure reported for “college” (tertiary type-B) is inflated.

In 1996 and 2001, the census did not explicitly ask respondents to provide information on apprenticeship program completion. Therefore, it is unclear whether the “trades” data in Table D.6.2 have captured apprenticeship program completion. The LFS figures in Table D.6.1, however, include information on apprentice program completions in the “less than college” category.

To ensure the confidentiality of responses collected for the census, a random rounding process is used to alter the values reported in individual cells. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values, since the total and subtotals are independently and randomly rounded. However, apart from discrepancies due to simple rounding, the percentages are calculated to add up to 100%, as recommended by census methodology.

Data sources

Labour Force Survey, Statistics Canada.

Census of Population, 1996 and 2001, Statistics Canada.

Education at a Glance, 2006 edition, OECD Publishing, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.