Indigenous Peoples Thematic Series
The use of Indigenous languages in urban areas in Canada

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by Thomas Anderson from the Centre for Indigenous Statistics and Partnerships at Statistics Canada, with funding provided by the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages (OCIL). We would like to thank OCIL for their continued work and dedication to the promotion of research on Indigenous languages; without their guidance this report would not have been possible.

Introduction

In order “to draw global attention on the critical situation of many indigenous languages and to mobilize stakeholders and resources for their preservation, revitalization and promotion,” the United Nations declared 2022-2032 as the International Decade of Indigenous Languages. This work was mirrored in Canada with the passage of the Indigenous Languages Act in 2019 and the creation of the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages.

Past research has pointed to the fact that Indigenous language health tends to be stronger in smaller, geographically isolated areas that are farther away from major cities (Anderson, 2018). However, the Indigenous population living in urban areas has continually grown in recent decades (Statistics Canada, 2022). In light of this reality, this research project will seek to understand the statistical profile of Indigenous language speakers living in urban areas.

The importance of Indigenous languages goes beyond the mere numbers of speakers. Research has examined the central role that Indigenous languages play in the culture and well being of Indigenous Peoples living in urban settings (Norris, 2011) along with their sense of identity and belonging (Morcom, 2021). Analysis of language data, whether in urban or rural environments, needs to account for the specificity of languages—as an increase in the proficiency of the speakers of one language do not benefit the health of another language, simply because they exist under a shared aggregation.

Furthermore, there is a need for data that are specific to the linguistic characteristics of specific cities. Each city in Canada carries its own unique array of Indigenous languages and cultures. As the First Peoples’ Cultural Council has emphasized, the diversity of languages “presents challenges for language revitalization because of limited funding and resources” (First Peoples’ Cultural Council, 2018). In many cities, the situation has been described as lacking a “critical mass of learners” to justify programming for every Indigenous language (National Association of Friendship Centres, 2018). Understanding the profile of urban areas where languages are spoken can help to highlight where there are areas of greatest need and possibilities for revitalization.

Statistics Canada has multiple measures to capture urbanicity. For the purposes of this report, Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) and Census Agglomerations (CAs) were selected as the unit of measure.^Note  This was done for two main reasons: 1) area files have been developed for previous census cycles, allowing for comparisons over time, and 2) CMA and CA boundaries generally correspond with agreed upon municipal borders, making statistical findings relevant to Indigenous language service providers working in a given area and allowing for the disaggregation of language data at the level of individual CMAs and CAs.

This report draws on data from the 2021 Census of Population, alongside previous census cycles to identify changes over time in the linguistic profile of Indigenous language speakers living in a CMA or CA. In addition, supplementary statistics using the 2022 Indigenous Peoples Survey, which asks questions on the importance of Indigenous languages, were also included. Finally, twelve CMAs and CAs were selected for focussed analysis, in order to highlight the specific linguistic communities in these areas.

Share of Indigenous language speakers living in CMAs and CAs relatively unchanged in the past 20 years

In 2021, of the 243,155 people living in Canada who could speak an Indigenous language, 57,120 lived in either a Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) or Census Agglomeration (CA). This group made up 23% of all Indigenous language speakers.

Among Indigenous language speakers living in a CMA or CA, the largest group was First Nations people (83%), with Métis (6%) and Inuit (3%) accounting for smaller shares.

Ontario was the province with the largest share of Indigenous language speakers living in a CMA or CA (18%), followed by Alberta (17%) and British Columbia (14%).

Within CMAs and CAs, one fifth (22%) of Indigenous language speakers lived on a First Nations reserve that was within the metropolitan boundaries.^Note  Chart 1 shows the number of Indigenous language speakers living on and off reserve for CMAs or CAs with at least 1,000 people who could speak an Indigenous language.

Data table for Chart 1

Data table for Chart 1
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 1 Off reserve and On reserve, calculated using number units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Off reserve	On reserve
	number
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Winnipeg, MB	5,270	45
Edmonton, AB	4,150	710
Cape Breton, NS	230	3,250
Sept-Îles, QC	485	2,560
Saskatoon, SK	2,625	70
Prince Albert, SK	2,585	90
Thunder Bay, ON	1,800	30
Ottawa - Gatineau, ON/QC	1,805	0
Vancouver, BC	1,290	505
Calgary, AB	1,665	0
Montréal, QC	1,270	0
Toronto, ON	1,135	30
Thompson, MB	1,160	0
Regina, SK	1,035	0

Over a twenty-year period, from 2001 to 2021, the number of Indigenous language speakers living in a CMA or CA rose by 13%. However, the share of Indigenous language speakers who lived in a CMA or CA was relatively unchanged over the same period (23% in 2001 compared with 24% in 2021).

While the share of Indigenous language speakers in CMAs and CAs has changed little from 2001 to 2021, the number of Indigenous people in a CMA or CA has risen dramatically, going up by 121% over that span. This reality begs the question, why do the numbers not reflect higher numbers of Indigenous language speakers living in metropolitan areas?

There are multiple aspects to this, but one part of the change is that it may be due—at least in part—to response mobility. The growth of the Indigenous population living in CMAs and CAs is part of a larger trend of Indigenous population growth as a whole. Response mobility, which refers to respondents changing their answers on survey questions over time, has been found to be a major driver of Indigenous population growth (O’Donnell and LaPointe, 2019). Furthermore, this growth has tended to be highest among Métis and First Nations people without registered or treaty Indian status—two groups with lower shares of people who could speak an Indigenous language.

However, beyond the demographic changes arising from response mobility, the more modest growth in the number of Indigenous language speakers in CMAs and CAs could also suggest a difficulty in maintaining language proficiency for Indigenous people who have moved from communities where Indigenous languages are more often spoken into urban areas where speakers are dispersed within a larger population.

Chart 2 shows the relative stability in the share of Indigenous language speakers who lived in a CMA or CA, from 2001 to 2021.^Note  Again, while this share changed little, the proportion of Indigenous language speakers living in a CMA or CA who learned their language as a second language did rise by a significant margin—going from 35% in 2001 to almost half (49%) in 2021.

Data table for Chart 2

Data table for Chart 2
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 2 Speakers in a CMA/CA and Speakers in a CMA/CA who learned their language as a second language, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Speakers in a CMA/CA	Speakers in a CMA/CA who learned their language as a second language
	percent
Sources: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2001, 2006, 2016 and 2021, and the National Household Survey, 2011.
2001	23	35
2006	22	35
2011	21	41
2016	23	43
2021	24	49

Outside of CMAs and CAs, the share of Indigenous language speakers who learned their language as a second language was smaller and changed more modestly, when compared with those living in a CMA and CA. In 2001, less than one in five (17%) of Indigenous language speakers living outside of a CMA or CA had learned their language as a second language. By 2021, this figure had risen to 24%, which was roughly half the share of those living inside a CMA or CA (49%).

Whether the greater share of second language learners living in CMAs and CAs is generally reflective of Indigenous people learning their languages within urban areas or is driven by second language speakers moving to urban areas is difficult to say. However, these results could highlight the need for more focussed analysis on second language programs in Canadian cities and their outcomes.

Cree languages and Ojibway languages most commonly spoken in CMAs and CAs

Beyond the general trends of all Indigenous languages, it is important to consider the specific languages spoken in CMAs and CAs. Chart 3 shows the most commonly spoken Indigenous languages in CMAs and CAs.

Cree languages was the largest group among Indigenous language speakers living in CMAs and CAs, with 18,590 speakers, followed by Ojibway languages (9,185 speakers) and Mi’kmaq (5,370 speakers).

Data table for Chart 3

Data table for Chart 3
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 3 , calculated using (appearing as column headers).

	Count
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Cree languages	18,590
Ojibway languages	9,185
Mi'kmaq	5,370
Innu (Montagnais)	3,945
Inuktitut	2,435
Dene, n.o.s.	1,905
Oji-Cree	1,765
Blackfoot	1,475
Halkomelem	1,300
Anicinabemowin (Algonquin)	1,180
Mohawk	1,020
Atikamekw	1,015
Michif	820
Secwepemctsin (Shuswap)	735
Dakota	545

Among those languages with the highest numbers of speakers living in a CMA or CA, the degree of urbanicity varied. For languages like Halkomelem (92%) and Secwepemctsin (Shuswap) (67%), the majority of speakers lived in a CMA or CA. However, for other languages, such as Inuktitut (6%), only a small minority of speakers lived in a CMA or CA (Chart 4).

Data table for Chart 4

Data table for Chart 4
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 4 , calculated using (appearing as column headers).

	Percent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Cree languages	21
Ojibway languages	35
Mi'kmaq	58
Innu (Montagnais)	37
Inuktitut	6
Dene, n.o.s.	16
Oji-Cree	12
Blackfoot	22
Halkomelem	92
Anicinabemowin (Algonquin)	61
Mohawk	64
Atikamekw	15
Michif	43
Secwepemctsin (Shuswap)	67
Dakota	36

Within CMAs and CAs, Indigenous language speakers were less likely to speak their language at home than those who lived outside of CMAs and CAs (Chart 5). Just over one in five of Indigenous language speakers who lived in a CMA or CA spoke their language most often at home (22%), while another 39% spoke it regularly. The figures for Indigenous language speakers living outside of CMAs and CAs were 55% (most often) and 24% (regularly).

Data table for Chart 5

Data table for Chart 5
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 5 Speaks language most often at home and Speaks language regularly at home, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Speaks language most often at home	Speaks language regularly at home
	percent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
In a CMA/CA	22	39
Outside a CMA/CA	55	24

Among the most commonly spoken Indigenous languages in CMAs and CAs, the share who spoke their language at home varied. For example, more than half of speakers of Innu (Montagnais) and Atikamekw who lived in a CMA or CA spoke their language at home most often (57% and 52% respectively). Other languages, such as Halkomelem and Dakota, had lower proportions of home use (see chart 6, below).

Data table for Chart 6

Data table for Chart 6
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 6 Most often and Regularly, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Most often	Regularly
	percent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Cree languages	17	43
Ojibway languages	15	43
Mi'kmaq	42	34
Innu (Montagnais)	57	25
Inuktitut	22	39
Dene, n.o.s.	30	29
Oji-Cree	21	41
Blackfoot	12	50
Halkomelem	6	35
Anicinabemowin (Algonquin)	26	31
Mohawk	11	43
Atikamekw	52	19
Michif	9	46
Secwepemctsin (Shuswap)	10	39
Dakota	11	28

In 2021, there were 35,015 people with an Indigenous mother tongue living in a CMA or CA. While most of this group were still able to converse in their mother tongue, 5,570 people were considered silent speakers—meaning that while they still understood their mother tongue, they could no longer speak it well enough to conduct a conversation. The share of those with an Indigenous mother tongue who were silent speakers was 16% for those living in a CMA or CA, which was significantly higher than the share outside of CMAs or CAs (6%).

Indigenous language speakers inside and outside CMAs and CAs consider their languages important

The Indigenous Peoples Survey (IPS) also has significant content that can be used to analyse the linguistic profile of Indigenous people living in CMAs and CAs. However, it is important to keep several things in mind when comparing data between the IPS and the Census. First, the IPS has a much broader definition of an Indigenous language speaker—asking respondents if they could understand or speak an Indigenous language “even if only a few words.”^Note  Another important distinction is that the IPS sample did not include First Nations people living on reserve. Therefore, any Indigenous language speakers living on reserve within the boundaries of a CMA or CA are absent from the IPS analysis.

Data from the 2022 Indigenous Peoples Survey show that, among Indigenous language speakers,^Note  the majority of Indigenous people reported that being able to speak an Indigenous language was either very important or somewhat important (78%). There was little difference between the responses of speakers living in a CMA or CA and those living outside (77% and 79%, respectively). This pattern held true for each Indigenous group—First Nations people living off reserve, Métis and Inuit.

Self-rated language proficiency varied depending upon whether the speaker lived inside or outside a CMA or CA. When asked to assess their own ability to speak an Indigenous language, 9% of Indigenous people living in a CMA or CA stated that they could speak their Indigenous language very well or relatively well, compared with 26% of those living outside of a CMA or CA. The differences were most pronounced among Inuit, as Chart 7 shows.

Data table for Chart 7

Data table for Chart 7
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 7 In a CMA/CA and Outside a CMA/CA, calculated using percent units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	In a CMA/CA	Outside a CMA/CA
	percent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021.
Speaks very well or relatively well
First Nations people living off reserve	11	14
Métis	3	6
Inuit	24	68
Understands very well or relatively well
First Nations people living off reserve	18	24
Métis	7	13
Inuit	34	76
Reads/writes very well or relatively well
First Nations people living off reserve	6	8
Métis	3	4
Inuit	18	57

In past research, Indigenous people have been found to place more importance on Indigenous languages when they are exposed both inside and outside the home (Jewell, 2016). Among parents of Indigenous children who were in school and were aged 6 to 18 years, one quarter (25%) reported that their child had been taught an Indigenous language in school. This was less common among those living in a CMA or CA (21%) than among those who lived outside of a CMA or CA (35%). This divide was most pronounced among Inuit (16% versus 84%).

Language characteristics of selected CMAs and CAs

The following cities were selected for focused analysis, due to having at least 1,000 people who reported the ability to speak an Indigenous language.^Note 

Winnipeg, MB

Winnipeg is home to the largest number of Indigenous people and Indigenous language speakers among all CMAs and CAs in Canada. In 2021, 5,315 people in Winnipeg could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation. Almost nine-in-ten (89%) speakers were First Nations people, 6% were Métis and 2% were Inuit.

The largest Indigenous language group in Winnipeg was Ojibway languages, with 2,325 speakers.  Most of this group was made up by those who reported Ojibway, n.o.s. (78%), followed by Saulteau (Western Ojibway) (16%) and Anishinaabemowin (Chippewa) (7%). There were an additional 335 people in Winnipeg, who were silent speakers of an Ojibway language.

Cree language speakers were the next largest group in Winnipeg (1,805 speakers), with an additional 205 people who were silent speakers of a Cree language. The largest share of Cree language speakers reported Cree, n.o.s. (53%), followed by Nehinawewin (Swampy Cree) (35%).

Oji-Cree was the third largest group in Winnipeg, with 990 speakers, and an additional 65 people who were silent speakers.

Edmonton, AB

Just under five thousand people could speak an Indigenous language in Edmonton (4,860). Three quarters of speakers were First Nations people (77%), 13% were Métis and 1% were Inuit. Within the boundaries of the CMA of Edmonton, 15% of Indigenous language speakers lived on reserve, within the communities of Enoch Cree Nation, Alexander 134, Wabamun 133A and Wabamun 133B; for the most part; the Indigenous languages spoken in these communities were Cree and Stoney.

Within Edmonton as a whole, Cree languages represented the largest group (3,895 speakers). The majority of this group either reported Cree, n.o.s. (53%) or Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) (36%). An additional 450 people were silent speakers of a Cree language.

The next most spoken Indigenous languages in Edmonton were Stoney (260 speakers and 20 silent speakers), Dene, n.o.s. (175 speakers and 40 silent speakers), Ojibway languages (135 speakers and 20 silent speakers) and Michif (95 speakers and 25 silent speakers).

Saskatoon, SK

In 2021, there were 2,690 people living in Saskatoon who could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation. Four in five speakers were First Nations people (81%) and 14% were Métis.

Cree languages were the most commonly spoken Indigenous languages in Saskatoon, accounting for 74% of all Indigenous languages speakers in the CMA (1,995 speakers). The largest shares of Cree speakers were those who reported Cree, n.o.s (45%) and those who reported Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) (43%). There were an additional 185 people who were silent speakers of a Cree language.

There were 370 people who spoke Dene, n.o.s., along with an additional 35 silent speakers of Dene, n.o.s.. The next most commonly spoken Indigenous languages in Saskatoon were Ojibway languages (210 speakers and 20 silent speakers), Michif (115 speakers and 20 silent speakers) and Dakota (80 speakers and 10 silent speakers).

Prince Albert, SK

There were 2,675 Indigenous language speakers living in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan in 2021. Just over one in twenty people who lived in Prince Albert could speak an Indigenous language (6%). Most Indigenous language speakers in Prince Albert were First Nations people (88%), while another 8% were Métis.

Most people who spoke an Indigenous language in Prince Albert, spoke a Cree language (80%), with 2,135 speakers altogether. Just over half of Cree language speakers reported Cree, n.o.s. (53%). The next largest groups were Nihithawiwin (Woods Cree) (22%) and Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) (16%). There were an additional 100 people who were silent speakers of a Cree language.

The next largest Indigenous language speaker groups in Prince Albert were Dene, n.o.s. (450 speakers and 50 silent speakers) and Dakota (70 speakers and 10 silent speakers).

Thunder Bay, ON

In 2021, there were 1,835 people in Thunder Bay who could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation. In Thunder Bay, almost all Indigenous language speakers were First Nations people (96%).

Ojibway languages (1,195 speakers) made up the largest share of speakers in Thunder Bay (65%). There were an additional 110 silent speakers of Ojibway languages. The vast majority of Ojibway language speakers simply reported Ojibway, n.o.s. (96%).

The next largest groups of Indigenous language speakers in Thunder Bay were those who spoke Oji-Cree (535 speakers and 55 silent speakers) and Cree languages (135 speakers and 35 silent speakers).

Ottawa – Gatineau, ON/QC

In Ottawa – Gatineau, 1,805 people could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation. Roughly half of speakers were First Nations people (49%), 3% were Métis and 34% were Inuit.

Owing to the fact that it has the largest Inuit population of any CMA or CA in Canada, Inuktitut (735 speakers) was the largest Indigenous language group in Ottawa – Gatineau. There were an additional 55 people who were silent speakers of Inuktitut.

Cree languages represented the next largest group with 415 speakers and 55 silent speakers. The most commonly spoken Cree language in Ottawa – Gatineau was Iyiyiw-Ayimiwin (Northern East Cree), with 150 speakers. Ojibway languages was the third largest group (265 speakers), followed by Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) (95 speakers) and Mohawk (70 speakers and 10 silent speakers).

Vancouver, BC

In Vancouver, 1,800 people were speakers of an Indigenous language. Most speakers were First Nations people (79%), with smaller shares of Métis (6%) and Inuit (2%).

Vancouver had a diverse range of Indigenous languages, with no single language having as many as four hundred speakers. Cree languages were the largest group with 335 speakers and 90 silent speakers. Most Cree speakers in Vancouver either reported Cree, n.o.s. (43%) or Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) (42%).

The next most commonly spoken Indigenous language in Vancouver was Squamish (290 speakers and 10 silent speakers), followed by Halkomelem (250 speakers) and Ojibway languages (125 speakers and 10 silent speakers).

Calgary, AB

In 2021, there were 1,660 Indigenous language speakers living in Calgary. Just over four-fifths (82%) of speakers were First Nations people, along with 7% for Métis and 2% for Inuit.

The largest Indigenous language group were Cree languages with 545 speakers and 95 silent speakers. Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) speakers made up 44% of all Cree speakers in Calgary and those who reported Cree, n.o.s. made up 43%.

Blackfoot was the next largest language group with 465 speakers and 45 silent speakers, followed by Stoney, with 180 speakers.

Census data shows that 170 people spoke Tsuu T’ina (Sarsi), in 2021. However, given that Tsuu T'ina Nation 145 was not enumerated in 2021, this number represents an undercounting of the real number of speakers.

Montréal, QC

In Montréal, there were 1,270 people who could speak an Indigenous language, in 2021. Just over four-in-ten Indigenous language speakers were First Nations people (43%), while 3% were Métis and 28% were Inuit.

Inuktitut was the most commonly spoken Indigenous language in Montreal, with 465 speakers and an additional 35 silent speakers. The next largest group was those who spoke a Cree language (250 speakers and 35 silent speakers); and the most common responses for those in the Cree language group were Iyiyiw-Ayimiwin (Northern East Cree) (46%) and Cree, n.o.s. (40%).

Mohawk was reported by 120 speakers. However, the First Nations of Kahnawake and Kanesatake, which belong to the Mohawk Nation and fall within the boundaries of Montréal, were not enumerated in 2021. As a result, the figures for Mohawk in Montréal are most likely undercounted.

Toronto, ON

As the largest CMA in Canada, Toronto was home to 1,160 Indigenous language speakers, in 2021. Two-thirds of speakers were First Nations people (67%), with smaller shares of Métis (7%) and Inuit (3%).

The largest Indigenous language group was Ojibway languages, with 600 speakers and an additional 60 silent speakers. The majority of Ojibway speakers simply reported Ojibway, n.o.s. (79%) and 21% reported Anishinaabemowin (Chippewa).

The next largest group was Cree languages (220 speakers and 20 silent speakers), followed by Mi’kmaq (90 speakers and 10 silent speakers) and Mohawk (65 speakers).

Thompson, MB

In 2021, there were 1,160 people in Thompson who could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation. The vast majority of this group were First Nations people (92%).

Almost one-in-ten (9%) of the total population of Thompson could speak an Indigenous language. This was the highest figure of all CMAs and CAs with the exception of Sept-Îles, where most speakers lived on reserve.

Cree languages were the most commonly spoken Indigenous languages in Thompson, by a wide margin. There were 1,015 speakers of a Cree language, in 2021, with an additional 75 silent speakers. The most common response among Cree language speakers in Thompson was Nehinawewin (Swampy Cree), accounting for 47% of Cree speakers, followed by those who reported Cree, n.o.s. (44%).

A smaller group reported speaking Dene, n.o.s., with 85 speakers and additional 25 silent speakers.

Regina, SK

Just over one thousand people could speak an Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation in Regina (1,035 speakers), in 2021. Four-in-five speakers were First Nations people (80%), 9% were Métis and 3% were Inuit.

Cree languages represented the largest group in Regina, with 765 speakers and 120 silent speakers. Cree, n.o.s was most commonly reported (49% of Cree speakers) followed by Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) (46%).

Ojibway languages were spoken by 180 people in Regina, with an additional 45 people who were silent speakers. The vast majority of those in the Ojibway languages group were speakers of Saulteau (Western Ojibway) (89%).

Conclusions and Limitations

This analysis sought to report on the linguistic profile and trends of Indigenous language speakers living in Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, along with the linguistic profiles of CMAs and CAs where significant numbers of speakers lived.

In general, the findings reflect that while minor growth has occurred in the number of Indigenous language speakers living in CMAs and CAs, the share of speakers has changed little over a twenty-year period. On the other hand, the share of speakers in CMAs and CAs who learned their language as a second language has increased at a significant rate. While part of this change may be reflective of the ongoing work of Indigenous language revitalization within cities, it is also associated with the impact of declining growth or size of the mother tongue population in the denominator.

At the level of specific CMAs and CAs, each area contains its own unique grouping of Indigenous languages. The analysis provided in this report is intended to aid in the identification of which languages in which cities are most in need of intervention.

The specificity with which some respondents report their answers on the Census of Population does create some areas of note. Among those who spoke either a Cree language or an Ojibway language, the majority of respondents reported only “Cree” or only “Ojibway” without specifying further (e.g. “Nehinawewin (Swampy Cree)”). At the level of specific CMAs and CAs, this may present an obstacle to those designing tools for language promotion, as the data does not always point to a specific language or dialect that can be addressed. However, by analysing the other responses in the overall category,^Note  it is possible to make an educated guess at the particular languages that can be best served.

It is worth noting that while the Census includes detailed linguistic information allowing for the capture of languages spoken or known since birth, this does not reflect the number of people who may belong to a particular linguistic community and wish to speak the language. For example, the data reveal that more than 5,000 Indigenous people in Winnipeg spoke an Indigenous language. However, this number reflects just 5% of the total Indigenous population living in the city. Analysis that focuses on the nations to which Indigenous Peoples living in cities belong may be a benefit to understanding the how to best develop Indigenous language programs.

Concepts and Methods

The data sources for this report were the 2021 Census of Population, along with the 2016, 2006 and 2001 cycles, the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS), and the 2022 Indigenous Peoples Survey (IPS).

When comparing estimates from the 2021 Census of Population to previous cycles, the data were adjusted to account for incompletely enumerated reserves. For more information on incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements, see Incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements.

Random rounding and percentage distributions: To ensure the confidentiality of responses collected for the 2021 Census, a random rounding process is used to alter the values reported in individual cells. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.

Because of random rounding, counts and percentages may vary slightly between different census products such as the analytical documents, highlight tables and data tables.

Data from the 2022 IPS were calculated using bootstrap weights available on the IPS Masterfile. Variance and significance testing were computed using the PROC SURVEYFREQ method, using SAS EG v. 8.3.

The following terms were used in this report:

Mother tongue – Refers to the first language learned in childhood that is still understood.

Knowledge – Refers to those who were able to speak a given language well enough to conduct a conversation.

Average age – Average age is a good indicator of the general health of a language. The average age of the mother tongue population is an indicator of the intergenerational transmission of an Indigenous language. A language with a young average age implies that children and young people are continuing to acquire an Indigenous language as their first language.

Indigenous language acquisition – This variable refers to how Indigenous language speakers learned the language they speak, whether as a mother tongue or as a second language.

• Learned as a mother tongue – This group is comprised of those who reported an Indigenous mother tongue on the 2021 Census and who could still speak that same language well enough to conduct a conversation.
• Learned as a second language – This group is comprised of those who could speak an Indigenous language, but who did not report that same language on the mother tongue question.

Silent speakers – This refers to people who have an Indigenous mother tongue, but—while they still understand it—can no longer speak the language well enough to conduct a conversation. In some circumstances, this may reflect those who have not continued to use their mother tongue over time or those who do not have a community of other speakers of the same language with whom to converse.

Home language – This refers to the extent to which respondents speak a given language at home.

• Spoken most often at home – This refers to the language the person speaks most often at home at the time of data collection. A person can report more than one language as "spoken most often at home" if the languages are spoken equally often. In many circumstances, a language spoken most often at home could be thought to reflect the speaker’s “main” language.
• Language(s) spoken regularly at home – This refers to the language(s), if any, that the person speaks at home on a regular basis at the time of data collection, other than the language(s) they speak most often at home.

References

Anderson, T. (2018). Results from the 2016 Census: Aboriginal languages and the role of second-language acquisition. Insights on Canadian Society. Catalogue no. 75-006-X.

First Peoples Cultural Council. (2018). Language Revitalization Fact Sheets: Language Diversity in B.C.

Jewell, E. M. (2016). Effects on the perceptions of language importance in Canada’s urban Indigenous peoples. Aboriginal Policy Studies (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada), 5(2).

Morcom, L. A. (2021). “Wiinge chi-baapinizi geniin ode: It really makes my heart laugh”: Language, culture, identity, and urban language revitalization. WINHEC International Journal of Indigenous Education Scholarship, (1), 179–209.

National Association of Friendship Centres. (2018). “Our languages, our stories: Towards the revitalization and retention of Indigenous languages in urban environments: Discussion paper.”

Norris, M.J. 2011. “Aboriginal Languages in Urban Canada: A Decade in Review, 1996 to 2006.” Aboriginal policy studies, Vol. 1, no. 2, 2011, pp. 4-67.

O’Donnell, V. and R. LaPointe. 2019. “Response mobility and the growth of the Aboriginal identity population, 2006-2011 and 2011-2016.” Catalogue no. 99-011-X.

Statistics Canada. (2022). “Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed.” The Daily. September 21st, 2022.

UNESCO. Indigenous Languages Decade (2022-2032). https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages. Accessed March 30, 2026.