Indigenous Peoples Thematic Series
Indigenous Language Families: Algonquian languages
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This report is a collaborative research project between Statistics Canada and the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. It is intended to provide a general overview on the vitality, acquisition and use of Indigenous languages belonging to the Algonquian language family. For more information on the work of OCIL see Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages - Home.
End of text boxAlgonquian languages
The Algonquian family represents the largest speaker base among all Indigenous languages in Canada. Among all people who reported the ability to speak an Indigenous language, more than two thirds were speakers of an Algonquian language. Algonquian language speakers were present in every province and territory in Canada, in 2021, and they made up the majority of all Indigenous language speakers in nine of ten provinces. Algonquian languages stretch beyond Canadian borders and are present in languages such as Arapaho in the United States, and Kickapoo, spoken in both the United States and Mexico.
Within this report the following Algonquian languages are presented:
- Blackfoot
- Atikamekw
- Cree languages
- Innu (Montagnais)
- Naskapi
- Mi'kmaq
- Wolastoqewi (Malecite)
- Anicinabemowin (Algonquin)
- Oji-Cree
- Ojibway languages
- Algonquian languages, not included elsewhere (n.i.e.)
Summary language statistics are provided for these languages in table 2.
Knowledge and mother tongue
In 2021, there were 163,815 people who reported that they could speak an Algonquian language well enough to conduct a conversation. The number of those who reported that an Algonquian language was their mother tongue—that is, the language first learned as a child and still understood—was 123,130.
The largest group within the Algonquian language family was those who reported Cree languages, with 87,875 speakers and 66,205 having a Cree mother tongue; this was followed by Ojibway languages (26,165 speakers and 15,890 mother tongue), and Oji-Cree (15,305 speakers and 11,930 mother tongue).
Age is a useful indicator of the degree to which languages are transmitted from one generation to the next. A language with a younger age profile typically means that younger people continue to learn and speak the language at a rate commensurate with older generations. The average age of Algonquian language speakers was 38 years, which was lower than the age of those who reported it as their mother tongue (40 years). On average, Algonquian language speakers were slightly older than all Indigenous language speakers, as the average age of all of those who could speak an Indigenous language was 37 years.
Key concepts
Mother tongue – Refers to the first language learned in childhood that is still understood.
Knowledge – Refers to those who were able to speak a given language well enough to conduct a conversation.
Average age – Average age is a good indicator of the general health of a language. The average age of the mother tongue population is an indicator of the intergenerational transmission of an Indigenous language. A language with a young average age implies that children and young people are continuing to acquire an Indigenous language as their first language.
Indigenous language acquisition – This variable refers to how Indigenous language speakers learned the language they speak, whether as a mother tongue or as a second language.
Learned as a mother tongue – This group is comprised of those who reported an Indigenous mother tongue on the 2021 Census and who could still speak that same language well enough to conduct a conversation.
Learned as a second language – This group is comprised of those who could speak an Indigenous language, but who did not report that same language on the mother tongue question.
Second language index – The second language index is calculated by dividing the number of people who can speak an Indigenous language by the number who reported the same language as their mother tongue, expressed per 100 people. A value of 100 implies all speakers learned their language as a mother tongue, whereas more than 100 implies some speakers must have learned their language as a second language.
Silent speakers – This refers to people who have an Indigenous mother tongue, but—while they still understand it—can no longer speak the language well enough to conduct a conversation. In some circumstances, this may reflect those who have not continued to use their mother tongue over time or those who do not have a community of other speakers of the same language with whom to converse.
Home language – This refers to the extent to which respondents speak a given language at home.
Spoken most often at home – This refers to the language the person speaks most often at home at the time of data collection. A person can report more than one language as "spoken most often at home" if the languages are spoken equally often. In many circumstances, a language spoken most often at home could be thought to reflect the speaker’s “main” language.
Language(s) spoken regularly at home – This refers to the language(s), if any, that the person speaks at home on a regular basis at the time of data collection, other than the language(s) they speak most often at home.
Continuity index – This index measures language retention by dividing the number of people who speak a given language most often at home by the total number who have that same language as their mother tongue, expressed per 100 people.
Language of work – This refers to the extent to which respondents speak a given language at work, for the population aged 15 years and over, who worked since 2020. As with home language, it can be expressed as either the language used most often at work, or a language that is spoken regularly.
For more information on concepts from the 2021 Census of Population, see Dictionary, Census of Population, 2021 (statcan.gc.ca)
The traditional homes of First Nations who speak Algonquian languages extend from as far west as the Rocky Mountains all the way to the Atlantic coast. In the Atlantic provinces, Mi’kmaq was the most commonly spoken Indigenous language. Specifically 90.7% of Mi’kmaq speakers resided in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, while the majority of Wolastoqewi (Malecite) speakers were found in New Brunswick alone (93.3%).
Eastern Quebec is home to the Atikamekw and Naskapi languages. The vast majority of Atikamekw (99.4%) and of Naskapi (97.1% ) speakers lived here. Similarly, Innu (Montagnais) was largely spoken in Quebec (81.1%), though a sizeable share of Innu speakers also lived in communities in Newfoundland and Labrador (17.9%).
Data table for Map 1
| Algonquin language | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| Blackfoot | 7 |
| Atikamekw | 8 |
| Cree languages | 165 |
| Innu (Montagnais) | 13 |
| Naskapi | 2 |
| Mi'kmaq | 15 |
| Wolastoqewi (Malecite) | 3 |
| Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) | 5 |
| Oji-Cree | 21 |
| Ojibway languages | 68 |
Cree languages, Ojibway languages, Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) and Oji-Cree were the most common Algonquian languages in central Canada and the prairies. Cree languages were fairly evenly dispersed, as they were most commonly spoken in Saskatchewan (28.3%), Alberta (25.0%), Quebec (20.4%), Manitoba (18.3%) and Ontario (5.9%). Ojibway language speakers were largely concentrated in communities throughout Ontario and southern Manitoba (50.3% in Ontario and 38.2% in Manitoba), with additional communities in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Oji-Cree was most prominent in northern Ontario and Manitoba, while Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) was mainly spoken in communities in western Quebec.
Finally, the Blackfoot language was almost entirely found in Alberta, where 98.8% of all Blackfoot speakers lived. These communities are located at the foot of the Rocky Mountains in southwest Alberta.
Home use and second-language speakers
The extent to which people speak a language at home is an important indicator of language maintenance and its overall health. In 2021, 119,630 people spoke an Algonquian language at home. For the majority of this group (59.4%), an Algonquian language was spoken most often at home; while for the other 40.6% it was spoken at home on a regular basis. Chart 1 shows the share of Algonquian language speakers who spoke an Indigenous language most often or regularly at home; it is organized by the average age of the mother tongue population in order to show variations on the relationship between the age of speakers and their likelihood of using the language at home.
Data table for Chart 1
| Spoken most often at home | Spoken regularly at home | |
|---|---|---|
| percent | ||
| Note: n.i.e. = not included elsewhere.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
||
| Atikamekw | 80.5 | 9.6 |
| Naskapi | 80.8 | 7.7 |
| Innu (Montagnais) | 74.2 | 15.5 |
| Oji-Cree | 47.8 | 34.7 |
| Cree languages | 42.8 | 30.2 |
| Mi'kmaq | 42.3 | 34.0 |
| Blackfoot | 46.7 | 28.1 |
| Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) | 23.8 | 32.3 |
| Ojibway languages | 20.8 | 37.0 |
| Wolastoqewi (Malecite) | 26.2 | 26.8 |
| Algonquian languages, n.i.e. | 15.2 | 27.3 |
The continuity index is a measure of language retention. It compares the number of people who speak a given language at home divided by the number who have that same language as a mother tongue, expressed per 100 people. A figure of more than 100 means that more people spoke the language at home than had it as a mother tongue, while a figure that is less than 100 means that fewer people speak it at home than had it as a mother tongue. For the Algonquian language family, using only the language spoken most often at home, the continuity index was 58, in 2021.
Most Algonquian language speakers learned their language as their mother tongue. This was true of 69.3% of all people who could speak an Algonquian language well enough to conduct a conversation. The remaining 30.7% of speakers are classified as “second-language speakers” (see chart 2 for the share of second language speakers for specific languages); however, this designation should not be taken literally as this group could include those who learned an Algonquian language as a third or fourth language.
Data table for Chart 2
| Second language | |
|---|---|
| percent | |
| Note: n.i.e. = not included elsewhere.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. |
|
| Atikamekw | 8.1 |
| Naskapi | 8.7 |
| Innu (Montagnais) | 11.7 |
| Oji-Cree | 23.6 |
| Cree languages | 30.4 |
| Mi'kmaq | 36.2 |
| Blackfoot | 30.5 |
| Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) | 46.4 |
| Ojibway languages | 47.5 |
| Wolastoqewi (Malecite) | 52.4 |
| Algonquian languages, n.i.e. | 78.8 |
In general, those who learn their language as a mother tongue are more likely to use it at home than those who have acquired it as a second language. Table 3 shows the share of home use for those who learned an Algonquian language as a mother tongue and those who learned it as a second language. Among those who learned an Algonquian language as their mother tongue, 80.0% spoke the language at home (56.8% most often and 23.2% on a regular basis). Among second-language speakers, 57.8% spoke the language at home (13.5% most often and 44.3% on a regular basis ).Home use among second-language speakers is an important indicator of revitalization, in relation to restoring the intergenerational transmission of Indigenous languages.
Silent speakers
The First Peoples’ Cultural Council (FPCC) defines silent speakers as “…people who have a good understanding of their language but do not speak it. There are many kinds of silent speakers, including people who spoke their language before attending residential school or people who grew up hearing their language and understand it, but do not speak it.”Note This indicator is useful in the work toward the reclamation and recovery of Indigenous languages.
An additional 10,040 people who reported that an Algonquian language was their mother tongue were no longer able to speak the language well enough to conduct a conversation; for the purposes of this study, these people are classified as “silent speakers”—those who can no longer conduct a conversation in their mother tongue, but still understand it, nonetheless. This group made up 8.2% of all of those with an Algonquian language as their mother tongue. The average age of silent speakers of an Algonquian language was 40 years.
Language of work
The Census of Population also collects information on the languages that people use most often at work. Among all employed persons, aged 15 years and over, who could speak an Algonquian language, 27.4% reported that it was the language they used most often at work. Another 17.8% said that they spoke an Algonquian language at work on a regular basis.
Algonquian language-specific vitality summary
The following is a summary of the vitality of each of the languages discussed in this report, using the indicators of knowledge, mother tongue, the average ages of those with a mother tongue, second language speakers and silent speakers, the share of speakers who learned their language as a mother tongue and the proportion of those who speak their language most often or regularly at home. Together these are important indicators of language maintenance and revitalization.
Atikamekw had 6,810 speakers. There were 6,305 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 28 years, the average age of second language speakers was 27 years and the average age of silent speakers was 30 years. The majority (91.9%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 89.3% spoke it most often and 10.7% spoke it regularly.
Naskapi had 1,040 speakers. There were 740 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 31 years, the average age of second language speakers was 25 years. The majority (91.3%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 91.3% spoke it most often and 8.7% spoke it regularly.
Innu (Montagnais) had 10,740 speakers. There were 9,435 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 32 years, the average age of second language speakers was 35 years and the average age of silent speakers was 27 years. The majority (88.3%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 82.7% spoke it most often and 17.3% spoke it regularly.
Oji-Cree had 15,300 speakers. There were 11,935 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 35 years, the average age of second language speakers was 26 years and the average age of silent speakers was 31 years. Three quarters (76.5%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 58.0% spoke it most often and 42.0% spoke it regularly.
Mi'kmaq had 9,245 speakers. There were 6,495 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 40 years, the average age of second language speakers was 31 years and the average age of silent speakers was 34 years. The majority (63.8%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 55.5% spoke it most often and 44.5% spoke it regularly.
Cree languages had 87,870 speakers. There were 66,205 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 40 years, the average age of second language speakers was 35 years and the average age of silent speakers was 39 years. The majority (69.6%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 58.6% spoke it most often and 41.4% spoke it regularly.
Blackfoot had 6,680 speakers. There were 4,945 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 43 years, the average age of second language speakers was 35 years and the average age of silent speakers was 38 years. The majority (69.5%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 62.5% spoke it most often and 37.5% spoke it regularly.
Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) had 1,950 speakers. There were 1,085 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 47 years, the average age of second language speakers was 39 years and the average age of silent speakers was 47 years. More than half (53.6%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 42.5% spoke it most often and 57.5% spoke it regularly.
Ojibway languages had 26,165 speakers. There were 15,890 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 48 years, the average age of second language speakers was 36 years and the average age of silent speakers was 44 years. Just over half (52.5%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 36.0% spoke it most often and 64.0% spoke it regularly.
Wolastoqewi (Malecite) had 820 speakers. There were 440 people who reported it as their mother tongue. While those with a mother tongue had an average age of 54 years, the average age of second language speakers was 39 years and the average age of silent speakers was 53 years. Less than half (47.6%) of its speakers acquired their language as a mother tongue. Among home users, 49.4% spoke it most often and 50.6% spoke it regularly.
About this report
This report is based on data from the 2021 Census of Population long-form questionnaire, which collected information for the population in private households. To ensure the confidentiality of responses collected for the census, a random rounding process is used to alter the values reported in individual cells. As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the sum of the individual values since the total and subtotals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentage distributions, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.
Because of random rounding, counts and percentages may vary slightly between different census products such as the analytical documents, highlight tables and data tables. While the effect of random rounding is generally negligible it may have a greater effect on certain populations, such as languages with smaller numbers of speakers.
Furthermore, languages with low numbers of speakers are suppressed to protect the confidentiality of respondents to the census questionnaire. As a result, these languages are collectively disseminated through the label of languages “not included elsewhere (n.i.e.)”.
Self-reporting of language data
Like all items on the census questionnaire, the language questions on the 2021 Census of Population are based on self-reporting. Therefore, responses to indicators—such as the ability to speak a language well enough to conduct a conversation—may vary depending upon the respondent, even among those with similar linguistic backgrounds. The issue of self-reporting also intersects with the fact that some respondents report the language(s) they speak within broad categories, while others report more specifically.
For more information language concepts, see Languages Reference Guide, Census of Population, 2021 (statcan.gc.ca)
Incomplete enumeration
During the 2021 Census of Population, 63 census subdivisions defined as reserves and settlements were incompletely enumerated. For these reserves and settlements, enumeration either was not permitted or could not be completed for various reasons, such as evacuations because of forest fires or access restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Counts of speakers for some languages were more impacted by incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements than others. For example, the Tsuu T’ina language and Iroquoian languages, such as Mohawk and Cayuga, are undercounted as reserves and settlements associated with these languages did not participate in the census. Regionally, other languages may be more impacted than others.
For more information on incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements, see Appendix 1.5 – Incompletely enumerated reserves and settlements in the Guide to the Census of Population, 2021.
| Number | Percent | Average age | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
|||
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 163,815 | ... not applicable | 38 |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 123,135 | ... not applicable | 40 |
| Able to speak Indigenous language well enough to conduct a conversation | 163,815 | 100.0 | 38 |
| Learned Indigenous language as mother tongue and still speak the language | 113,455 | 69.3 | 40 |
| Learned Indigenous language as second language | 50,355 | 30.7 | 34 |
| Second language index | ... not applicable | 133 | ... not applicable |
| Indigenous language as mother tongue | 123,135 | 100 | 40 |
| Can still speak Indigenous mother tongue | 113,100 | 91.9 | 40 |
| Silent speakers (mother tongue but can no longer speak) | 10,040 | 8.2 | 40 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home | 119,630 | 100.0 | 36 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at home | 71,120 | 59.4 | 36 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at home on a regular basis | 48,510 | 40.6 | 37 |
| Continuity index (includes only language spoken most often at home) | ... not applicable | 58 | ... not applicable |
| Employed speakers aged 15 years and over | 52,240 | 100.0 | 45 |
| Speaks Indigenous language most often at work | 14,320 | 27.4 | 45 |
| Speaks Indigenous language at work on a regular basis | 9,275 | 17.8 | 46 |
| Does not speak Indigenous language at work | 28,650 | 54.8 | 45 |
| Knowledge of Indigenous language | Indigenous mother tongue | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| number | average age | number | average age | |
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | ||||
| Algonquian languages | 163,815 | 38 | 123,130 | 40 |
| Blackfoot | 6,685 | 41 | 4,945 | 43 |
| Cree-Innu languages | 105,850 | 37 | 82,630 | 38 |
| Atikamekw | 6,810 | 28 | 6,300 | 28 |
| Cree languages | 87,875 | 39 | 66,205 | 40 |
| Ililimowin (Moose Cree) | 415 | 43 | 185 | 52 |
| Inu Ayimun (Southern East Cree) | 895 | 31 | 700 | 32 |
| Iyiyiw-Ayimiwin (Northern East Cree) | 4,875 | 33 | 3,855 | 33 |
| Nehinawewin (Swampy Cree) | 4,670 | 44 | 3,135 | 49 |
| Nehiyawewin (Plains Cree) | 12,005 | 42 | 6,730 | 49 |
| Nihithawiwin (Woods Cree) | 5,110 | 44 | 3,760 | 47 |
| Cree, n.o.s. | 61,000 | 38 | 47,855 | 39 |
| Innu (Montagnais) | 10,740 | 33 | 9,430 | 32 |
| Naskapi | 1,035 | 30 | 740 | 31 |
| Eastern Algonquian languages | 10,035 | 38 | 6,935 | 41 |
| Mi'kmaq | 9,240 | 37 | 6,495 | 40 |
| Wolastoqewi (Malecite) | 820 | 46 | 445 | 54 |
| Ojibway-Potawatomi languages | 42,865 | 39 | 28,890 | 43 |
| Anicinabemowin (Algonquin) | 1,955 | 43 | 1,085 | 47 |
| Oji-Cree | 15,305 | 33 | 11,930 | 35 |
| Ojibway languages | 26,165 | 43 | 15,890 | 48 |
| Anishinaabemowin (Chippewa) | 2,040 | 39 | 765 | 49 |
| Daawaamwin (Odawa) | 220 | 46 | 130 | 52 |
| Saulteau (Western Ojibway) | 3,630 | 48 | 2,590 | 52 |
| Ojibway, n.o.s. | 20,715 | 43 | 12,500 | 48 |
| Algonquian languages, n.i.e. | 165 | 42 | 25 | 54 |
| Number | Percent | Average age | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |||
| Learned Algonquian language as mother tongue | 113,455 | 100.0 | 40 |
| Speaks Algonquian language at home | 90,780 | 80.0 | 38 |
| Speaks Algonquian language most often at home | 64,460 | 56.8 | 36 |
| Speaks Algonquian language at home on a regular basis | 26,320 | 23.2 | 42 |
| Does not speak Algonquian language at home | 22,680 | 20.0 | 46 |
| Learned Algonquian language as second language | 50,355 | 100.0 | 34 |
| Speaks Algonquian language at home | 29,095 | 57.8 | 31 |
| Speaks Algonquian language most often at home | 6,775 | 13.5 | 33 |
| Speaks Algonquian language at home on a regular basis | 22,325 | 44.3 | 30 |
| Does not speak Algonquian language at home | 21,255 | 42.2 | 39 |
Data table for Map 2
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 7 |
| 101 - 500 | 4 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 1 |
| 1,001 - 2,360 | 2 |
Data table for Map 3
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 15 |
| 101 - 500 | 4 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 1 |
| 1,001 - 1,955 | 3 |
Data table for Map 4
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 322 |
| 101 - 500 | 120 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 21 |
| 1,001 - 4,625 | 19 |
Data table for Map 5
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 34 |
| 101 - 500 | 5 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 5 |
| 1,001 - 2,190 | 3 |
Data table for Map 6
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 10 |
| 101 - 500 | 1 |
| 501 - 585 | 1 |
Data table for Map 7
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 56 |
| 101 - 500 | 12 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 1 |
| 1,001 - 2,980 | 2 |
Data table for Map 8
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 8 |
| 101 - 305 | 3 |
Data table for Map 9
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 26 |
| 101 - 500 | 4 |
| 501 - 545 | 1 |
Data table for Map 10
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 37 |
| 101 - 500 | 13 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 5 |
| 1,001 - 3,125 | 3 |
Data table for Map 11
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 100 | 253 |
| 101 - 500 | 58 |
| 501 - 1,000 | 3 |
| 1,001 - 2,245 | 3 |
Data table for Map 12
| Number of speakers | Number of Census subdivisions |
|---|---|
| Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2021. | |
| 10 - 25 | 10 |
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