Notes

For information about the ecozone geographical unit used in this analysis see Appendix H Geographies.

This land cover change data was derived from 30 m resolution land cover; results are more precise than other land cover tabulations using Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) 250 m. Geographic coverage of this data is presented in Map 1 (Appendix C).

Hofmann, N., G. Filoso and M. Schofield, 2005, "The loss of dependable agricultural land in Canada," Rural and Small Town Canada Analysis Bulletin, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 21-006-X, Vol. 6, no. 1.

"Dependable" agricultural land is land designated as Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3 by the Canada Land Inventory (McCuaig, J.D. and E.W. Manning, 1982, Agricultural Land Use Change in Canada: Process and Consequences, Environment Canada, Lands Directorate, Catalogue no.73-1/21E) and includes all land areas that are not affected by severe constraints for crop production.

Statistics Canada, Environmental Accounts and Statistics Division, 2013, special tabulation based on Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2012, 2011 AAFC Crop Type Map of Canada, ftp://ftp.agr.gc.ca/pub/outgoing/aesb-eos-gg/Crop_Inventory/2011/ (accessed October 9, 2012) and Natural Resources Canada, 1999, Canada Land Inventory: Soil Capability for Agriculture (1: 250,000), www.geogratis.gc.ca (accessed 2001). This analysis, which uses a land cover compilation based on satellite imagery, is not compatible with analysis previously reported in Hofmann, N., G. Filoso and M. Schofield, 2005, "The loss of dependable agricultural land in Canada," Rural and Small Town Canada Analysis Bulletin, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 21-006-X, Vol. 6, no. 1, due to differences in the data sources and methodologies.

The resolution of available satellite data sources will have an impact on the precision and accuracy of land cover analyses.

Ontario Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, 2013, The Greenbelt Act, 2005, www.mah.gov.on.ca/Page195.aspx (accessed June 27, 2013).

Includes forest, wetland, barrenland, grassland or shrubland that has predominantly natural or naturalizing characteristics.

Statistics Canada’s Standard Drainage Area Classification hierarchy provides geographical units that are consistent over time allowing compilation of statistics by hydrographical areas. It includes ocean drainage areas, major drainage areas, sub-drainage areas (SDAs), as well as sub-sub-drainage areas covering the whole of Canada (Map 2, Appendix H). See Appendix H for more information on geographical units.

Natural land parcel size refers to the size of continuous natural and/or naturalizing land areas including forests, wetlands, barrenlands, grasslands and shrublands, measured in km².

Distance to natural land parcel is defined as the average distance from any location within an SDA to a natural land parcel.

Barrier density refers to the density of roads, rail lines and electrical transmission lines that fragment landscapes, but excludes other types of supporting infrastructure such as pipelines, measured in km of barriers/km² of land.

The MEGS project only addressed the terrestrial portion of landscapes for this analysis. While water was considered out of scope in this experimental work, it is acknowledged as a part of landscapes that should be evaluated in the future.

Naturalizing landscapes have previously been modified from their natural state, but have been left undisturbed and are transitioning to a more natural land cover (e.g., cleared land reverting to forest area). The new natural state may or may not be similar to the original natural land cover.

Settled area is based on Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada's 30 m land cover code for developed areas.

This trend is consistent with an overall decline in total farm area from 2001 to 2011. For more information, see Statistics Canada, 2012, Farm and Farm Operator Data, Catalogue no. 95-640-X.

Federal, Provincial and Territorial Governments, 2010, Canadian Biodiversity: Ecosystem Status and Trends 2010, Canadian Councils of Resource Ministers, www.biodivcanada.ca/ecosystems (accessed May 29, 2013).

European Environment Agency, 2011, Landscape Fragmentation in Europe, Joint European Environment Agency (EEA) and Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) report, EEA report no. 2/2011, EEA, Copenhagen.

Bastien, O., D. Haaese and K. Grunewald, 2012, "Ecosystem properties, potentials and services – the EPPS conceptual framework and an urban application example," Ecological Indicators, Vol. 21, pages 7 to 16.

van Oudenhoven, A.P.E., K. Petz, R. Alkemade, L. Hein and R.S. de Groot, 2012, "Framework for systematic indicator selection to assess effects of land management on ecosystem services," Ecological Indicators, Vol. 21, pages 110 to 122.

Burkhard. B., F. Kroll, S. Nedkov and F. Müller, 2012, "Mapping ecosystem service supply, demand and budgets," Ecological Indicators, Vol. 21, pages 17 to 29.

The boreal zone is a major biogeoclimatic zone of the high northern latitudes, covering much of North America, mainly with forests, woodlands, wetlands and lakes (see Maps 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6).

Pike, R.G., M.C. Feller, J.D. Stednick, K.V. Rieberger and M. Carver, 2010, "Water Quality and Forest Management," pages 401 to 440 in Pike, R.G., T.E. Redding, R.D. Moore, R.D. Winker and K.D. Bladon (eds.), 2010, Compendium of forest hydrology and geomorphology in British Columbia, British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range, Forest Science Program, Victoria, B.C. and FORREX Forum for Research and Extension in Natural Resources, Kamloops, B.C., Land Management Handbook 66, www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh66.htm (accessed March 19, 2013).

Results from the boreal forest case study are preliminary. The variability observed in the index values was not assessed against independent datasets on water quality. While the formulation of the index relied on best information available in the scientific literature at the time, the outputs from the boreal case study will require further validation. For further information about the index, interpretation of the results and important caveats, please refer to Appendix D.

For example, tracking net carbon balance (NCB) provides an assessment of the goods and services that are provided by the earth’s ecosystems. NCB is considered an indicator of the sustainability of carbon or biomass use. The MEGS project focused on measuring biomass extraction as it is a component of carbon accounting.

Biomass extraction data are provided for various sources (e.g., agricultural crops, livestock and poultry, milk, honey and maple products, forestry, fisheries) but are not a complete representation of all biomass extraction in Canada.

Beaudoin, Y. and L. Pendleton (eds.), 2012, Why value the oceans? A discussion paper, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, Duke University's Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity and the UNEP Regional Seas Programme.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2012, Canada's State of the Oceans Report, www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/coe-cde/soto/documents/dfo_soto/english/ index-eng.htm (accessed June 14, 2013).

This figure excludes the extended continental shelf. See: Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2013, Canada’s Ocean Estate: A Description of Canada’s Maritime Zones, www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/canadasoceans-oceansducanada/marinezones- zonesmarines-eng.htm (accessed June 14, 2013).

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2013, Canada's State of the Oceans Report, www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/coe-cde/soto/report-rapport-2012/index-eng.asp (accessed July 11, 2013).

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2013.

Terrados, J. and J. Borum, 2004, "Why are seagrasses important? – Goods and services provided by seagrass meadows," pages 8 to 10 in Borum, J., C.M. Duarte, D. Krause-Jensen and T.M. Greve (eds.), 2004, European seagrasses: an introduction to monitoring and management, Monitoring and Managing of European Seagrasses (M&MS) project.

Terrados and Borum, 2004.

Comprehensive fisheries data are not available for aboriginal, subsistence or recreational fisheries.

Environment Canada, 2013, Status of Major Fish Stocks, www.ec.gc.ca/indicateurs-indicators/default.asp?lang=en&n=1BCD421B-1#fs1 (accessed July 9, 2013).

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2013, 2010 Survey of Recreational Fishing, www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/stats/rec/can/2010/index-eng.htm (accessed July 9, 2013).

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2013.

Ecodistricts are characterized by distinctive assemblages of relief, fauna, water bodies, soils, landforms and geology and are the lowest level in the Ecological Framework of Canada hierarchy. See Appendix H for more information on geographical units used in this analysis.

Statistics Canada, Environment Accounts and Statistics Division, 2013, special tabulation of data from the 2006 Census of Population.

Tarnocai, C., 2009, "The impact of climate change on Canadian Peatlands," Canadian Water Resources Journal, Vol. 34, no. 4, pages 453 to 466.

Federal, Provincial and Territorial Governments, 2010, Canadian Biodiversity: Ecosystem Status and Trends 2010, Canadian Councils of Resource Ministers, www.biodivcanada.ca/ecosystems (accessed May 29, 2013). Please note that the total extent and proportion of wetland area may be underestimated due to data availability.

Tarnocai, C., 2009.

National Wetlands Working Group, 1988, "Wetlands of Canada," Ecological Land Classification Series, No. 24, Sustainable Development Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa Ontario and Polyscience Publications Inc., Montreal Quebec.

Westbrook, C.J., N. Bruner, I. Phillips and J.-M. Davies, 2011, Wetland Drainage Effects on Prairie Water Quality: Final Report, Centre for Hydrology Report No. 9, Centre for Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

Government of Canada, 1991, The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation, Catalogue no. CW66-116/1991E.

Bartzen, B.A., K.W. Dufour, R.G. Clark and F.D. Caswell, 2010, "Trends in agricultural impact and recovery of wetlands in prairie Canada," Ecological Applications, Vol. 20, no. 2, pages 525 to 538.

Brinson, M.M. and A.I. Malvárez, 2002, "Temperate freshwater wetlands: types, status, and threats," Environmental Conservation, Vol. 29, no. 2, pages 115 to 133.

Euliss Jr., N.H., R.A. Gleason, A. Olness, R.L. McDougal, H.R. Murkin, R.D. Robarts, R.A. Bourbonniere and B.G. Warner, 2006, North American Prairie Wetlands are Important Nonforested Land-Based Carbon Storage Sites, USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Paper 23, http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsnpwrc/23 (accessed September 16, 2013).

Watmough, M.D. and M.J. Schmoll, 2007, Environment Canada’s Prairie and Northern Region habitat monitoring program Phase II: recent habitat trends in the Prairie Habitat Joint Venture, Technical Report Series No. 493, Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton Alberta.

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2010, Southern Ontario Wetland Conversion Analysis, Final Report.

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2010.

Lockey, D.A., 2011, Wetlands, Land Use and Policy: Alberta’s Keystone Ecosystem at a Crossroads, Green Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Alberta Institute of Agrologists, Banff, Alberta, March 16, 2011.

Alberta Environment and Water, 2012, Ecosystem Services Approach Pilot on Wetlands: Integrated Assessment Report, http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/posting.asp?assetid=8493&searchtype= asset&txtsearch=ecosystem services (accessed September 24, 2013).

Tarnocai, C., 2009, "The impact of climate change on Canadian Peatlands," Canadian Water Resources Journal, Vol. 34, no. 4, pages 453 to 466.

Monetary and functional valuations of wetland services in this section have not been validated by Statistics Canada. The numbers are included as examples of service values derived by other researchers. Please refer to noted papers and documents for information on methodologies used.

Troy, A. and K. Bagstad, 2009, Estimating Ecosystem Services in Southern Ontario, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Kennedy, M. and J. Wilson, 2009, Estimating the Value of Natural Capital in the Credit River Watershed, Drayton Valley, Alberta, Pembina Institute.

Alberta Environment and Water, 2012, Ecosystem Services Approach Pilot on Wetlands: Integrated Assessment Report, http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/posting.asp?assetid=8493&searchtype= asset&txtsearch=ecosystem services (accessed September 24, 2013).

Olewiler, N.D., 2004, The value of natural capital in settled areas of Canada, Ducks Unlimited Canada and the Nature Conservancy of Canada.

This assessment focused solely on SDAs located in the southern portion of the country.

A higher level of landscape modification is indicated by smaller natural land parcel sizes and larger distances to natural land parcels.

Watersheds are areas draining naturally to a water course or other given point.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis, World Resources Institute, Washington DC.

Flow variability is represented by the coefficient of variation calculated using monthly streamflow values from Environment Canada’s Water Survey of Canada, for the years 1990 to 2010 for rivers with the highest streamflow in the sub-drainage area.

Fang, X., A. Minke, J. Pomeroy, T. Brown, C. Westbrook, X. Guo and S. Guangul, 2007, A Review of Canadian Prairie Hydrology: Principles, Modelling and Response to Land Use and Drainage Change, Centre for Hydrology Report No. 2, Version 2, Centre for Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

Alberta Government, 2011, "Ecosystem Services Approach Pilot on Wetlands," Economic Valuation Technical Report.

Turbidity is the cloudiness of a liquid caused by suspended particles and is used as a measure of water quality.

Statistics Canada, 2013, Survey of Drinking Water Plants, 2011, Catalogue no. 16-403-X.

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2006, "Wetlands," Natural Values: Linking the Environment to the Economy, www.ducks.ca/assets/2012/06/nv6_wet.pdf (accessed July 17, 2013).

Tarnocai, C., 2009, "The impact of climate change on Canadian Peatlands," Canadian Water Resources Journal, Vol. 34, no. 4, pages 453 to 466.

O’Reilly, B.C. and S.A. Finkelstein, 2011, Carbon accumulation and vegetation dynamics in the Hudson Bay Lowlands: allogenic or autogenic forcings?, presented at GeoHydro2011, joint meeting of the Canadian Quaternary Association (CANQUA) and the Canadian Chapter of the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH-CNC), August 28 to 31, 2011, in Québec City, Quebec, www.geohydro2011.ca/gh2011_user/cle_usb/pdf/doc-2365.pdf (accessed September 16, 2013).

Worthy, D.E.J., I. Levin, F. Hopper, M.K. Ernst and N.B.A. Trivett, 2000, "Evidence for a link between climate and northern wetland methane emissions," Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Vol. 105, Issue D3, pages 4031 to 4038.

Roulet, N.T., A. Jano, C.A. Kelly, L.F. Klinger, T.R. Moore, R. Protz, J.A. Ritter and W.R. Rouse, 1994, "Role of the Hudson Bay lowland as a source of atmospheric methane," Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Vol. 99, Issue D1, pages 1439 to 1454.

Tarnocai, C., 2000, "Carbon pools in soils of the Arctic, Subarctic and Boreal regions of Canada," pages 91 to 103 in Lal, R., J.M. Kimble and B.A. Stewart (eds.), 2000, Global Climate Change and Cold Regions Ecosystems, Advances in Soil Science, Boca Raton Fla., Lewis Publishers.

Federal, Provincial and Territorial Governments, 2010, Canadian Biodiversity: Ecosystem Status and Trends 2010, Canadian Councils of Resource Ministers, www.biodivcanada.ca/ecosystems (accessed May 29, 2013).

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2010, Southern Ontario Wetland Conversion Analysis, Final Report.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and Statistics Canada, special tabulation, Census of Agriculture, Census Geographic Component Base 2011.

Small wetlands measuring less than 1 ha have been excluded from this analysis since the capacity to detect and measure small wetlands on a regional basis is quite limited.

Yang, W., X. Wang, S. Gabor, L. Boychuk and P. Badiou, 2008, Water Quantity and Quality Benefits from Wetland Conservation and Restoration in the Broughton’s Creek Watershed, Ducks Unlimited Canada publication.

Statistics Canada, 2010, "Freshwater supply and demand in Canada," Human Activity and the Environment, Catalogue no. 16-201-X.

Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2008, The Impacts of Wetland Loss in Manitoba, www.gov.mb.ca/waterstewardship/iwmp/willow_creek/documentation/ducks.pdf (accessed September 11, 2013).

Environment Canada and Manitoba Water Stewardship, 2011, State of Lake Winnipeg: 1999 to 2007, www.manitoba.ca/waterstewardship/water_quality/state_lk_winnipeg_report/pdf/ state_of_lake_winnipeg_rpt_technical_low_resolution.pdf (accessed July 22, 2013).

Statistics Canada, 2013, Survey of Drinking Water Plants, 2011, Catalogue no. 16-403-X.

Batt, B.D.J., M.G. Anderson, C.D. Anderson and F.D. Caswell, 1989, "The use of prairie potholes by North American ducks," pages 204 to 227 in van der Valk, A.G. (ed.), 1989, Northern prairie wetlands, Iowa State University Press, Ames.

Yang, W., Y. Liu, P.C. Boxall, K. Packman, M. Weber and S. Gabor, 2009, Integration of Watershed Planning and the Agricultural Policy Framework for the Provision of Ecological Goods and Services: A Pilot Watershed Approach for Wetland Restoration and Retention, pages 13 to 29 in Proceedings of the Ecological Goods and Services Technical Meeting, Ottawa, Canada, Prairie Habitat Joint Venture (Edmonton).