EnviroStats
Ecosystem spotlight—oceans

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank our colleagues at Statistics Canada for their valuable contributions throughout the development and writing of this article: Sean Clarke, Eric Desjardins, Kirk Donaldson, Guillaume Dubé, Tansy Evely, Matthew Hoffarth, Matthew Kelly, Karan Landge, Alexandria Melvin, Ricky Patel, Matt Prescott and Jennie Wang. We also thank Sheri Fritzsche and colleagues at Fisheries and Oceans Canada for help understanding and interpreting data from Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

We are grateful to our peer reviewers whose feedback improved the quality of the article:

• William Alger, Dehcho Guardian
• Carolyn Cahill
• Economics, Statistics and Data Governance Directorate, Fisheries and Oceans Canada
• Shawn Marshall, Susan Preston, Brett Painter and Evalynn Jacaban, Environment and Climate Change Canada
• Dan Mulrooney, Chantal Vis and Marlow Pellatt, Parks Canada
• Brian Robinson, McGill University
• Rob Smith, Midsummer Analytics
• François Soulard, Senior Natural Capital Accountant
  

Introduction

Figure 1
Selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystems, 2023

Description for Figure 1

The title of the figure is “Selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystems, 2023.”

The figure has a row of images corresponding to four ocean and coastal ecosystem types: ocean waters, a Great Blue Heron in a salt marsh, an underwater seagrass meadow, and a kelp forest. Under each image is a number indicating the extent of each ecosystem (see table).  The bottom part of the figure displays two tables with selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystems in Canada: one table for condition indicators and the other for ecosystem services.

Table F.1 Selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystem extent, 2023 Table summary
The information is grouped by Ecosystem, Ocean waters, Salt marsh, Seagrass meadow, and Kelp forest
(appearing as row headers),and calculated using Area (km²)(appearing as column headers).

Ecosystem	Area (km2)
Ocean waters	5,758,773
Salt marsh	3,514
Seagrass meadow	1,562
Kelp forest	603

Table F.2 Selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystem condition, 2023 Table summary
The information is grouped by Marine Bioregion, Scotian Shelf, Strait of Georgia, Newfoundland–Labrador Shelves, Gulf of St. Lawrence (appearing as row headers), Warming per decade (1982 to 2024), calculated using degrees celcius units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Marine Bioregion	Warming per decade (1982 to 2024)
	degrees Celcius
Scotian Shelf	0.53
Strait of Georgia	0.36
Newfoundland–Labrador Shelves	0.33
Gulf of St. Lawrence	0.33

Table F.3 Selected statistics on ocean and coastal ecosystem services, 2023 Table summary
The information is grouped by Contribution, Carbon sequestration, Wild fish, Nature-based tourism, and Sum (appearing as row headers), Amount and Value , calculated using number and millions in dollars units of measure (appearing as column headers).

Contribution	Amount	Value
	number	millions in dollars
Note ... not applicable
Carbon sequestration	23 megatonnes	5,467
Wild fish	638 kilotonnes	1,176
Nature-based tourism	64 million days	458
Sum	... not applicable	7,101

Note: These selected statistics on ocean and coastal extent, condition, and ecosystem services represent a subset of relevant measures in each category. As the Census of Environment develops, statistics will continue to be improved to offer a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystems over time.

Sources: Statistics Canada, Census of Environment, tables 38-10-0153-01, 38-10-0183-01, 38-10-0189-01 and 38-10-0190-01.

Over one-third of Canada’s territory is ocean: spanning nearly 5.8 million square kilometres from the coast to the limits of the exclusive economic zone.^Note 1 Canada’s oceans are home to many species and play a key role in climate systems from local to global scales. They are also important to our economy, society and cultural identities. Canadians need information about marine and coastal natural areas to make decisions about how we interact with them, including tracking changes in their size, health and the ways they contribute to Canadians’ well-being.

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What you should know about this study

This study presents efforts to create a suite of ecosystem accounts for Canada as part of the Census of Environment. The goal is to demonstrate the value of producing an integrated set of accounts on ecosystem extent, condition and services for ocean and coastal ecosystems, to showcase how these statistics can be used to understand the relationship between the environment and Canadian society.

This work introduces experimental valuation of ecosystem services in both physical and monetary terms. It expands on the ocean and coastal ecosystem extent and condition accounts already developed as part of the Census of Environment and highlights the links among these accounts.

These accounts bring together data from multiple sources, including economic and environmental data, to provide consistent and comparable statistics. While these accounts are not yet complete, they illustrate ongoing efforts to measure ecosystem extent, condition and their contributions to benefits enjoyed by people. Efforts will be made to improve and expand these statistics over time as new data and methods become available.

The data and methods follow the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting—Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA), an international statistical standard for Natural Capital Accounting. For more information on the ocean and coastal ecosystem extent account, protected and conserved ocean and coastal extent account, and the ocean condition account, visit the Census of Environment portal. Data sources and methods for ecosystem service estimates are described in Appendix A.

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Ecosystem services: Marine contributions to Canadians’ well-being

Canada’s oceans and coastal areas contribute to many aspects of well-being, described as “ecosystem services” or “nature’s contributions to people.”^{Note 2Note 3} These services include commercially harvested wild fish and seafood, nature-based tourism experiences (e.g., hiking, sightseeing, sea kayaking), and carbon sequestration—the process by which ecosystems capture and store carbon dioxide (CO₂). In 2023, oceans and coastal ecosystems contributed $7.1 billion worth of ecosystem services, including commercially harvested wild fish and seafood ($1.2 billion),^Note 4 nature-based tourism ($458 million),^Note 5 and carbon sequestration ($5.5 billion)^Note 6 (Chart 1).^Note 7

This does not include the whole of the ocean’s value. These estimates reveal values embedded in market transactions and are limited to a subset of those values. Furthermore, other valuable and important contributions were not considered in this study, such as protection from coastal flooding and erosion, wildlife habitat, aesthetic values, and cultural activities.

Data table for Chart 1

Data table for Chart 1
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 1 Carbon sequestration, Wild fish and Nature-based tourism, calculated using millions of dollars units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Carbon sequestration	Wild fish	Nature-based tourism
	millions of dollars
Source: Statistics Canada table 38-10-0190-01.
2018	729	950	336
2019	1,527	916	331
2020	2,169	231	107
2021	3,173	1,553	264
2022	3,964	1,604	384
2023	5,467	1,176	458

Oceans also contribute to Canada’s economy through employment and other productive activities.^Note 8 In 2021, an average of 29.7% of employment income in fishing-based communities came directly from fishing-related industries.^{Note 9Note 10} Employment income is complementary to the monetary values associated with commercially harvested fish reported above, which exclude costs such as labour (see Appendix A).

The value of ocean ecosystems can be understood in more than just monetary terms—their importance can be felt in terms of their influence on livelihoods, health, cultural identity and other relationships between people and nature. For example, sea ice extent is declining,^Note 11 with longer ice-free periods caused by climate change.^Note 12 This has profound impacts on Arctic ecosystems and important species, such as polar bears, whales, seals, walruses and other Arctic animals. The loss of key species and declining sea ice threatens Inuit food security, access to fishing and hunting areas, and travel between communities. Many Inuit rely on country foods^Note 13 that are fished or hunted and subsequently shared within extended families and communities, the loss of which contributes to food insecurity and has negative consequences on cultural identity, traditions and health.^{Note 14Note 15}

Still, measurements of ecosystem services reveal important relationships between human activity and marine ecosystems. Looking at the physical quantities and dollar values of these services together over time provides a better understanding of how these relationships might be changing. For example, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is evident in sharp drops in the dollar values^Note 16 of both commercially harvested fish (Chart 2) and nature-based tourism (Chart 3) in 2020, but for different reasons.

Data table for Chart 2

Data table for Chart 2
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 2 Canada, Pacific and Atlantic, calculated using kilotonne, and million units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Canada	Pacific	Atlantic
	kilotonne
Note: “Canada” refers to the total of Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific Oceans in Canadian territory. There were no marine fish landings in provinces or terrritoies bordering on the Arctic Ocean in available data (data on where fish were harvested are not available). See Appendix A for details. Sources: Statistics Canada tables 38-10-0189-01, 38-10-0190-01.
Quantity of harvested fish
2018	797	195	602
2019	807	183	624
2020	740	176	564
2021	718	147	571
2022	670	115	556
2023	638	100	538
	million
Inflation adjusted dollars (2017 dollars)
2018	934	179	755
2019	888	100	787
2020	221	33	188
2021	1,381	72	1,309
2022	1,323	72	1,251
2023	954	72	882

During the pandemic period (2020), the market price paid for commercially harvested fish and seafood declined more than fishing effort,^Note 17 resulting in a large temporary drop in the value of the oceans’ contributions to the production of commercially harvested fish (Chart 2). The monetary value of this ecosystem service is based on a residual (resource rent; see Appendix A)—the amount left from revenues after removing operating costs such as labour, fuel and machinery maintenance. Therefore, if revenues decline relative to costs, the residual can be small, as in this case. The national trends in both physical and monetary terms are driven by changes in the Atlantic Ocean, which supports a larger fishing industry than the Pacific Ocean.

Data table for Chart 3

Data table for Chart 3
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 3 Canada, Pacific and Atlantic, calculated using million units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Canada	Pacific	Atlantic
	million
Note: Nature-based tourism includes activities related to the use and enjoyment of the environment by people travelling outside their usual location. It does not include recreation by local residents. See Appendix A for details. “Canada” refers to the total of Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific Oceans in Canadian territory. Data for the Arctic Ocean are not shown because of small values relative to other regions, but are included in the national totals. Sources: Statistics Canada tables 38-10-0189-01, 38-10-0190-01.
Days of nature-based tourism
2018	63	37	26
2019	61	34	26
2020	33	17	15
2021	50	27	23
2022	61	33	27
2023	64	39	25
Inflation adjusted dollars (2017 dollars)
2018	331	215	114
2019	321	206	114
2020	103	69	33
2021	235	159	75
2022	317	205	111
2023	372	261	110

In contrast to commercial fishing, the drop in the value of nature-based tourism in 2020 and subsequent recovery matched the same trends in activity over the same period (see Chart 3). Fewer visits to marine and coastal areas led to less spending on tourism activities and a drop in the associated value of ecosystem services to nature-based tourism.

Data table for Chart 4

Data table for Chart 4
Table summary
This table displays the results of Data table for Chart 4 Canada, Pacific and Atlantic, calculated using million units of measure (appearing as column headers).

	Canada	Pacific	Atlantic
	million
Note: Estimates of carbon sequestration in Arctic ocean waters are not available due to lack of input data on sea surface temperature and chlorophyll-a for this region (see Appendix A). Data for other ecosystems in the Arctic Ocean are not shown because of small values relative to other regions, but are included in the national totals. Sources: Statistics Canada tables 38-10-0189-01, 38-10-0190-01.
Tonnes of carbon sequestered
2018	20	5	14
2019	21	5	15
2020	20	5	14
2021	22	5	16
2022	22	6	15
2023	23	5	17
Inflation adjusted dollars (2017 dollars)
2018	717	191	508
2019	1,480	368	1,077
2020	2,080	528	1,500
2021	2,820	638	2,118
2022	3,268	853	2,340
2023	4,438	1,004	3,338

Ocean and coastal ecosystems also play a crucial role in absorbing and storing carbon, which helps to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The physical amount of carbon sequestered increased 22% in the Atlantic Ocean from 2018 to 2023, as a result of warming temperatures and increased algae growth (measured by chlorophyll-a concentrations). From 2018 to 2023, the increase in the dollar value^Note 16 of carbon sequestration (Chart 4) is explained by increases in the unit price applied to carbon sequestration estimates. The price of carbon increased from $10 per tonne of CO₂-equivalent in 2018 to $65 in 2023.^Note 18

Benefits from nature depend on extent and condition

The capacity to provide ecosystem services depends on an ecosystem’s type, its condition (health) and its extent (size). This can be illustrated through the lens of blue carbon sequestration—biological processes that capture and store CO₂ in ocean and coastal ecosystems. The extent of different types of ecosystems directly affects the quantity of carbon that can be sequestered. For example, in Canada, ocean waters account for the vast majority of the extent of ocean and coastal ecosystems (more than 99.9%; Table 1). So, although they are not the most efficient ecosystem at sequestering carbon, they account for most (96%) of the blue carbon that was captured in 2023.

Each ecosystem has a unique capacity to sequester carbon that also varies with its condition. Ocean conditions, such as sea surface temperature, chlorophyll concentrations and organic particle concentrations, all influence the capacity of ocean waters to provide this ecosystem service. One pathway for carbon sequestration in ocean waters is through phytoplankton growth, which absorbs CO₂ via photosynthesis. This carbon enters the marine food web and eventually falls as organic debris to deep ocean layers, where it can remain trapped for 100 years or more (see Appendix A).

Salt marshes, a type of coastal wetland, trap carbon in sediments for long-term storage.^Note 19 Salt marshes cover an area of less than 1% of Canada’s ocean and coastal ecosystems, but account for 3% of all blue carbon sequestration in 2023 (Table 1). Salt marshes and other coastal ecosystems, such as seagrass meadows and kelp forest, contribute more to blue carbon sequestration by unit area than ocean water. They are also directly affected by human activities, such as pollution, nearby construction and land use change,^Note 20 which can alter their extent and condition, consequently affecting their ability to store carbon.

The highest rates of carbon sequestration in ocean waters, averaged over 2018 to 2024, were seen in the Southern Shelf and Northern Shelf marine bioregions in the Pacific Ocean, as well as the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence marine bioregion. These regions also had the highest concentrations of chlorophyll-a and particulate organic carbon over the same period (Table 2). Both of these attributes directly affect the amount of CO₂ absorbed and stored by the ocean waters and are example indicators of ecosystem condition.

The Pacific continental shelf tends to be more productive than the Atlantic Ocean, absorbing more CO₂ per unit area (Table 2). However, more carbon sequestration is attributed to the Atlantic Ocean because of its larger extent (Table 1).

Protecting nature’s capacity for future generations

Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures help to reduce the negative impacts of human activity on ocean and coastal ecosystems, contributing to better ecosystem health and capacity to supply ecosystem services into the future.^Note 21

For example, salt marshes support fisheries indirectly by providing food and refuge for multiple fish species.^{Note 22Note 23} The Hudson Bay Complex marine bioregion has the largest documented area of salt marsh in Canada and has sequestered over 495,000 tonnes of carbon in 2023.^Note 24 This region also has the second-highest share of protected or conserved salt marsh areas (43.1%), after the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence (45.4% of salt marsh protected or conserved).^Note 25

New marine conserved and protected areas are in the process of being established to fulfill Canada’s goal of conserving 30% of ocean area by 2030,^Note 26 in line with Global Biodiversity Framework targets.^Note 27 In 2024, Tang.ɢwan — ḥačx^wiqak — Tsig̱is was designated as a Marine Protected Area in the Offshore Pacific marine bioregion, bringing the proportion of protected and conserved area to 15.5% of Canadian oceans, and over 30% of Canadian Pacific waters. ^{Note 25Note 28} Conservation measures and other policies can reduce negative impacts of human activity and ensure that coastal and marine ecosystems are maintained in a condition that allows them to be a part of Canadians’ lives for generations.

Statistics Canada’s Census of Environment Program will continue to produce and update statistics on the environment and economy for marine and other ecosystems across Canada. Integrated data on ecosystem extent, condition and services, such as those presented here, are essential for tracking changes over time and supporting informed decisions about Canada’s natural areas.

Appendix A: Methods for estimating ecosystem services

This appendix briefly summarizes the methods used to measure ecosystem services in physical and monetary terms for the development of ecosystem service accounts following the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting—Ecosystem Accounting.

Carbon sequestration

Carbon sequestration is defined as carbon that is removed from the atmosphere by biological processes and stored in ecosystems for a long period of time. Carbon sequestration was measured using two different methods:

• For coastal ecosystems—seagrass, salt marshes and kelp forest—carbon sequestration estimates were obtained by integrating published carbon sequestration rates with the spatially explicit extent of each ecosystem type from the Ocean and coastal ecosystem extent account. Carbon sequestration rates (i.e., average annual tonnes of carbon sequestered per square metre) were retrieved from the scientific literature, with a focus on published studies that included sites in Canada, supplemented by others when local results were not available.
• For ocean water, carbon sequestration was modelled using Earth observation data on chlorophyll-a concentration, sea surface temperature, diffuse attenuation and photosynthetically active radiation. The model estimated the quantity of carbon removed from the atmosphere by phytoplankton through photosynthesis. Net primary production (NPP) by phytoplankton was estimated using the Vertically Generalized Production Model.^Note 29 To evaluate the contribution of this production to long-term storage, the export flux of NPP-derived organic carbon from the surface layer was calculated, and the fraction of this flux reaching 1,000 metre depth, which is commonly used as a threshold for storage lasting at least 100 years, was taken to represent the component contributing to long-term carbon storage.

The estimates represent net carbon sinks because they only include carbon that is stored in the environment by ecosystems. The model used takes into account carbon that is emitted by ecosystems as part of natural processes, and removes these quantities from estimates of carbon uptake to produce a net estimate of carbon stored. Impacts from human disturbances are not accounted for in these estimates.

The monetary value of carbon sequestration was estimated by applying prices from the federal Output-Based Pricing System (OBPS). Although the federal fuel charge was set to $0 on April 1, 2025, the OBPS remained in effect.^Note 30 The federal OBPS provides the most relevant market prices for carbon sequestration in oceans, which are under federal jurisdiction. While these prices reflect current institutional arrangements and market conditions, they do not capture the full impact of reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere on climate or human well-being. The social cost of carbon is a measure of expected damages from greenhouse gas emissions, but it is sensitive to the choice of discount rate and includes a broad range of direct and indirect costs. Such costs may not be comparable to other values presented here, which were calculated using resource rent (see below).

The estimated physical flow of carbon sequestration (tonnes of carbon) was converted to tonnes of CO₂-equivalent and multiplied by the carbon price from the federal OBPS for the corresponding reference year to calculate a total monetary value of carbon sequestration for each reference year.

Nature-based tourism

Nature-based tourism is defined as people travelling and staying in places outside their usual location for periods of time lasting less than a year to enjoy the environment through direct, in situ, physical and experiential interactions with the environment.^Note 31

For ocean and coastal ecosystems, it was measured by estimating the number of days of nature-based tourism that occurred near ocean and coastal areas. Estimated days include all visits where the main purpose of travel was for leisure or other personal reasons, but exclude visits where the main purpose was for employment reasons.

The number of days was obtained from the National Travel Survey (NTS) and Visitor Travel Survey (VTS). All trips for leisure, visiting friends and families, and other non-routine personal reasons that occurred in a coastal census subdivision (CSD) were included if any of the following activities were reported: sightseeing; going wildlife viewing or bird watching; visiting a national, provincial or nature park; boating; canoeing or kayaking; camping; hiking or backpacking; visiting a beach; or cross-country skiing or snowshoeing. For in-scope trips, the number of days was estimated by summing the number of nights reported, plus one, for each trip. Because of data availability issues with the VTS, the number of days for international visitors was extrapolated using ratios calculated from the NTS (Canadian residents travelling in Canada).

The monetary value of nature-based tourism was estimated using a resource rent approach (see below for more details) using the expenditure reported in the surveys as an estimate of output related to nature-based tourism.

Provincial data from Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec were aggregated to the Atlantic Ocean; Ontario, Manitoba and the territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut) to the Arctic Ocean; and British Columbia to the Pacific Ocean.

Commercially harvested fish and seafood

The values in this article correspond to landings from commercial sea fisheries, including groundfish, pelagic and other finfish, and shellfish, as reported by Fisheries and Oceans Canada. The data may include some farmed shellfish production (for example, Atlantic oysters). Commercial landings are an underestimate of the provisioning service supplied, since not all bycatch is included.

The monetary value of ecosystem contributions to fish production is estimated as the resource rent approach (see below), using market values of fish landings reported by Fisheries and Oceans Canada as an estimate of output related to commercial fishing.

Provincial data were aggregated to ocean regions in the same way as nature-based tourism (see above).

Resource rent

Resource rent is the surplus value that accrues to users of a natural resource, which represents returns to the natural resource itself.^Note 32 Resource rent is calculated as the difference between total revenue generated from extraction of the resource and all costs incurred during the extraction process, including the consumption of produced capital (depreciation), returns to produced assets, labour and intermediate inputs, but excluding taxes, royalties and other costs that are not specific to the extraction process.^{Note 33Note 34Note 35} Resource rent is the basis for estimates of Canada’s natural resource wealth in the Natural Resource Asset Accounts, which is integrated into Canada’s quarterly National Balance Sheet Accounts.^Note 33

Resource rent is a type of economic rent that only includes returns to natural non-produced capital. In the case of harvesting natural resources, such as minerals, timber or fish, all returns to non-produced capital, calculated as described above, are typically attributed to the natural resource as resource rent. More generally, however, non-produced capital can also include contracts, marketing, monopoly control or other unique characteristics of an asset that are not the result of a production process.

To estimate resource rent for selected ecosystem services, returns to non-produced capital were estimated for all industries in the Canadian economy by combining economy-wide data from several sources, including the Supply and Use Tables, investment flows and capital stock data (includes net stock and depreciation estimates), and Government of Canada five-year bond yields (combined with capital stock data to calculate returns to produced capital). These estimates were considered to be resource rent when they were associated with harvesting natural resources or other ecosystem contributions to market revenue. Rent-to-output ratios were combined with spending on nature-based tourism activities or market values of harvested fish—expressed as output by supplying industry at basic prices—to estimate resource rent for each ecosystem service.