Analytical Studies Branch Research Paper Series
Citizenship Acquisition and Active Presence of Immigrants in Canada
DOI: https://doi.org/10.25318/11f0019m2025006-eng
Text begins
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted in collaboration with Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. The authors would like to thank Nicolas Bastien, Julien Bérard-Chagnon, Marc Frenette, Chantal Goyette, Maciej Karpinski and Catherine Tuey for their advice and comments on an earlier version of this paper.
Abstract
International research suggests that some immigrants enhance their “mobility capital” by obtaining citizenship in their receiving country. This article explores the potential relationship between acquiring Canadian citizenship and maintaining an active presence in Canada, as measured by the filing of income taxes. Overall, the proportion of immigrants who were active after 10 years was much higher among immigrants who were citizens than among those who were not. Moreover, active presence has increased among more recent immigrant cohorts, regardless of citizenship status. The analysis further reveals that about 2% of naturalized immigrants ceased their active presence in Canada from one year before to one year after obtaining citizenship. However, this decline in active presence was smaller than the annual decrease of about 3 percentage points among immigrants who did not acquire citizenship. These results indicate that a very small proportion of immigrants shifted from an active to an inactive presence in Canada after acquiring citizenship. For most immigrants, little change in their active presence status was associated with naturalization. These findings suggest that immigrants who choose to become Canadian citizens are highly committed to staying in Canada.
Keywords: Immigration, citizenship, naturalization, active presence.
1 Introduction
Recently, concerns have been raised regarding immigrants’ tendency to leave Canada following admission. Establishing the extent to which immigrants permanently leave Canada, either to return to their home country or to move to a third country, is difficult given the available data.Note Recognizing the difficulty in establishing the actual number of exits, a recent approach used the concept of active presence (Hou, 2024). Active presence refers to the extent to which immigrants admitted to Canada engage in society, as indicated by activities such as filing income taxes and participating in the labour market.
One effective way of estimating active presence is to use tax filing behaviour. Operationally, active presence means filing income taxes (or appearing in tax data) in Canada in a calendar year. Tax filing behaviour serves as an important indicator of immigrants’ socioeconomic engagement in Canada for several reasons. Having earned income is a clear indication of immigrants’ economic activity. Moreover, tax records are often used to determine eligibility for specific benefits and services. By filing taxes, immigrants gain access to these benefits and services. Regular tax filing can also help immigrants establish a credit history, which is essential for various financial activities, such as renting a home, securing loans and initiating businesses.
A very high proportion of immigrants file taxes, even if they have little or no income. Among immigrants admitted in 2020, 90% filed a tax return in their first full year following admission. The proportion of immigrants with an active presence in Canada (i.e., filing tax returns) 10 years after immigration increased from 77% among those who obtained permanent residency from 1990 to 1994 to 80% among the 2005-to-2009 entry cohort. Little evidence suggests that the tendency of immigrants to be active in Canada was declining across entry cohorts (Hou, 2024).
This article examines the link between citizenship acquisition and active presence in Canada. Immigrants who choose to become citizens generally have a greater commitment to the receiving country and often plan to reside there long term, compared with their counterparts who do not become citizens (Hou & Picot, 2021). For example, 93% of immigrants who entered Canada from 2008 to 2012 and became citizens had an active presence 10 years after admission, compared with 67% of those who did not become citizens (Table 1). A host of reasons can account for this difference. Some immigrants may leave Canada before having the chance to become citizens, while others who are less committed to staying long term may forgo citizenship, anticipating a shorter residence in the country.
This article examines two specific questions. Among those who choose to become Canadian citizens, is the act of becoming a citizen associated with more international mobility? If so, to what extent? Put differently, is there a decline in immigrants’ active presence in Canada after acquiring Canadian citizenship, and if so, how large is the decline? The increase in “mobility capital” associated with citizenship acquisition may result in more international movement.
International mobility after acquiring citizenship can involve either return migration or onward migration to a third country. While not necessarily permanent, this mobility may lead to more cyclical migration. It can be driven by factors such as economic opportunities in other countries, the cost of living or housing issues in the receiving country, family or business events in the source country, or changing health conditions (de Hoon et al., 2020). Such mobility can be facilitated by acquiring citizenship in the receiving country. The Canadian passport may be important for some immigrants because of its visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to many countries. Canadian citizenship provides security against deportation, guarantees the right to remain in Canada indefinitely and ensures the right to return even after living abroad for many years. Three European studies concluded that naturalization was, in some cases, associated with an increased likelihood to emigrate (Galeano et al., 2022; de Hoon et al., 2020; Bratsberg & Raaum, 2011).
2 The changing citizenship rate in Canada
The traditional citizenship rate among recent immigrants—the proportion of immigrants living in Canada who are citizens—has been declining since the mid-1990s (Hou & Picot, 2024). These citizenship statistics are based on the census and refer to immigrants residing in Canada at the time of the census . Such statistics exclude immigrants who were not present in Canada at the time of the census, regardless of whether they acquired Canadian citizenship.
Because this analysis assesses the relationship between citizenship acquisition and maintaining an active presence in Canada, it is necessary to have information on naturalized immigrants (i.e., those who acquired Canadian citizenship), whether they remain in Canada or leave. Such data have been lacking in the past but have become available as part of the Longitudinal Immigration Database (IMDB). This analysis focuses on immigrants who were admitted to Canada from 2003 to 2012 and were of prime working age (25 to 54 years) at the time of admission. This admission period was chosen based on the availability of citizenship data in the IMDB and to ensure a minimum follow-up period of 10 years.Note The primary concept used here is that of active presence, meaning that an immigrant filed an income tax return in Canada in a given year. An immigrant is considered “inactive” if they do not display an active presence, meaning they either left Canada or remained in the country without filing taxes.Note
Chart 1 presents citizenship rates for all immigrants who were admitted to Canada and for those with an active presence in the country. This chart reveals several salient observations.
First, in any given year, the citizenship rate among all immigrants in an arrival cohort—the measure used in this paper—is lower than that among immigrants with an active presence in Canada. This is because immigrants who leave Canada are less likely to be citizens than those who remain. For example, after 15 years, the citizenship rate among all immigrants admitted in the 2003-to-2007 entry cohort was 72%, while it was 82% among those with an active presence in Canada, which is similar to the rate derived from the census (Hou & Picot, 2024).
Second, both measures demonstrate a decline in the citizenship rate between the 2003-to-2007 and 2008-to-2012 entry cohorts. This is consistent with earlier research based on census data.
Third, in addition to a decline in the citizenship rate among recent immigrants, an increasing tendency to delay citizenship acquisition was seen. For example, five years after admission, the citizenship rate among the more recent 2008-to-2012 cohort (36%) was around 9 percentage points lower than that observed in the earlier cohort (45%). However, after 10 years in Canada, that gap was reduced to around 7 percentage points (61% for the 2008-to-2012 cohort and 68% for the 2003-to-2007 cohort), suggesting that some immigrants delayed acquiring citizenship in the more recent cohort compared with the earlier cohort.
Data table for Chart 1
| Years since admission | 2003 to 2007 cohort | 2008 to 2012 cohort | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All admitted | With active presence | All admitted | With active presence | |
| percent | ||||
|
||||
| 4 | 26.9 | 29.7 | 16.3 | 17.9 |
| 5 | 45.3 | 50.5 | 35.6 | 39.4 |
| 6 | 53.8 | 60.2 | 47.7 | 53.0 |
| 7 | 59.4 | 66.7 | 53.8 | 59.9 |
| 8 | 63.4 | 71.3 | 57.0 | 63.6 |
| 9 | 66.0 | 74.4 | 59.2 | 66.2 |
| 10 | 67.8 | 76.8 | 61.4 | 68.7 |
| 11 | 69.0 | 78.5 | … | … |
| 12 | 69.9 | 79.7 | … | … |
| 13 | 70.5 | 80.5 | … | … |
| 14 | 71.0 | 81.2 | … | … |
| 15 | 71.5 | 82.0 | … | … |
3 Naturalized immigrants have a higher active presence in Canada than those without Canadian citizenship
The active presence of immigrants who became Canadian citizens tended to decline with the number of years since admission (Chart 2 and Table 1), while inactivity increased. For example, among the 2008-to-2012 cohort, 4% of immigrants who became citizens were inactive 5 years after admission, rising to 7% after 10 years. This indicates that some immigrants who become citizens forgo their active presence in Canada after naturalization. However, this may be associated with the acquisition of citizenship or for other reasons. The rate of active presence declines with years since admission, regardless of whether the immigrant is a citizen.
Unsurprisingly, immigrants who do not become citizens are much less likely to maintain an active presence in Canada than their naturalized counterparts, suggesting the latter group has a much stronger commitment to Canada. This is evident in Chart 2 where, for example, among the 2008-to-2012 cohort, 93% of naturalized immigrants had an active presence 10 years after admission, compared with 67% of immigrants who were non-citizens. The decline in active presence over time within an admission cohort was much steeper for non-citizens. However, between the 2003-to-2007 and 2008-to-2012 cohorts, active presence increased more among non-citizens (from 58% to 67% in the 10th year) than among citizens (from 91% to 93%). This suggests that, despite declining citizenship rates, a greater proportion of immigrants remain actively present in Canada, regardless of citizenship status.
| Admission cohort and years since admission | Population count | Citizenship rate | Among citizens | Among non-citizens | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active presence | Inactive presence | Active presence | Inactive presence | |||
| number | percent | |||||
| Note: Population counts are rounded to the nearest 10.
Source: Statistics Canada, Longitudinal Immigration Database. |
||||||
| 2003-to-2007 cohort | ||||||
| 4 | 795,720 | 26.9 | 95.2 | 4.8 | 82.8 | 17.2 |
| 5 | 795,390 | 45.3 | 94.6 | 5.4 | 77.0 | 23.0 |
| 6 | 795,010 | 53.8 | 93.9 | 6.1 | 72.3 | 27.7 |
| 7 | 794,600 | 59.4 | 93.1 | 6.9 | 68.0 | 32.0 |
| 8 | 794,150 | 63.4 | 92.5 | 7.5 | 64.3 | 35.7 |
| 9 | 793,680 | 66.0 | 91.8 | 8.2 | 61.2 | 38.8 |
| 10 | 793,160 | 67.8 | 91.2 | 8.8 | 58.1 | 41.9 |
| 11 | 792,560 | 69.0 | 90.5 | 9.5 | 55.5 | 44.5 |
| 12 | 792,010 | 69.9 | 90.0 | 10.0 | 53.4 | 46.6 |
| 13 | 791,350 | 70.5 | 89.4 | 10.6 | 51.6 | 48.4 |
| 14 | 790,630 | 71.0 | 89.0 | 11.0 | 50.2 | 49.8 |
| 15 | 789,830 | 71.5 | 88.7 | 11.3 | 49.0 | 51.0 |
| 2008-to-2012 cohort | ||||||
| 4 | 848,600 | 16.3 | 96.6 | 3.4 | 86.5 | 13.5 |
| 5 | 848,260 | 35.6 | 96.3 | 3.7 | 82.0 | 18.0 |
| 6 | 847,850 | 47.7 | 95.6 | 4.4 | 77.3 | 22.7 |
| 7 | 847,460 | 53.8 | 94.8 | 5.2 | 73.8 | 26.2 |
| 8 | 847,000 | 57.0 | 93.9 | 6.1 | 71.2 | 28.8 |
| 9 | 846,490 | 59.2 | 93.2 | 6.8 | 69.1 | 30.9 |
| 10 | 845,880 | 61.4 | 92.7 | 7.3 | 67.1 | 32.9 |
Data table for Chart 2
| Years since admission | 2003 to 2007 cohort | 2008 to 2012 cohort | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Citizens | Non-citizens | Citizens | Non-citizens | |
| percent | ||||
|
||||
| 4 | 95.2 | 82.8 | 96.6 | 86.5 |
| 5 | 94.6 | 77.0 | 96.3 | 82.0 |
| 6 | 93.9 | 72.3 | 95.6 | 77.3 |
| 7 | 93.1 | 68.0 | 94.8 | 73.8 |
| 8 | 92.5 | 64.3 | 93.9 | 71.2 |
| 9 | 91.8 | 61.2 | 93.2 | 69.1 |
| 10 | 91.2 | 58.1 | 92.7 | 67.1 |
| 11 | 90.5 | 55.5 | ... not applicable | ... not applicable |
| 12 | 90.0 | 53.4 | ... not applicable | ... not applicable |
| 13 | 89.4 | 51.6 | ... not applicable | ... not applicable |
| 14 | 89.0 | 50.2 | ... not applicable | ... not applicable |
| 15 | 88.7 | 49.0 | ... not applicable | ... not applicable |
4 Variation by human capital factors and country of birth
The tendency for immigrants—either citizens or non-citizens—to have an active presence may vary significantly by characteristic. For example, highly educated immigrants, with more opportunity for international mobility, may have a higher rate of inactivity in Canada than those who are less educated. Immigrants from developed nations, where better economic opportunities are more readily available, may also choose return migration more often than those from developing nations, resulting in a lower rate of active presence in Canada.
To assess such possibilities, the rate of active presence (filing taxes in Canada) and inactivity (not filing taxes) is estimated for citizens and non-citizens in the 10th year after admission for adult immigrants admitted from 2003 to 2012. The citizenship rate after 10 years is also estimated as the sum of the proportions of active and inactive citizens.Note These estimates are based on a multinomial logistic regression model, meaning that for any independent variable, such as country of birth, controls are in place for all other variables included in the table.Note Using such estimates offers several advantages. For example, in the raw data, differences by source country in the rate of active presence may be attributable to differences among immigrants from various countries in their educational attainment, age, language and so on. By controlling for (accounting for) the overlapping effects of these independent variables, the estimates associated with the source country provide a better estimate of the independent effect of source countries.
Table 2 highlights the significant impact of human capital factors on citizenship rates. Immigrants with a bachelor’s or graduate degree had higher citizenship rates than those with lower educational levels. Similarly, immigrants who spoke English or French at the time of immigration had higher citizenship rates than those who spoke neither language. These findings likely reflect factors such as the ability to pass the citizenship knowledge test and afford application fees (Hou & Picot, 2021). Younger immigrants, particularly those who arrived aged 20 to 34 years, were more likely to naturalize than older immigrants. By immigration class, refugees had the highest citizenship rates, followed by immigrants admitted through the Federal Skilled Worker Program and the Quebec selection program.
By country of birth, immigrants from developed countries tend to have a lower citizenship rate than others. This well-known observation is related to the fact that such immigrants already have a “valuable” passport,Note and acquiring a Canadian passport is not a significant advantage for them. Also, the possibility of return migration to wealthier nations is greater than the likelihood of returning to a lower-income country.Note Anticipating such a possibility, immigrants may not apply for Canadian citizenship. The citizenship rate among immigrants from developed countries, such as the United States, France, the United Kingdom and South Korea, was 35% (the United States) to 54% (South Korea) 10 years after admission. Interestingly, in recent years, China (49%) has joined the ranks of these countries with lower citizenship rates (see Hou & Picot, 2024). Immigrants from developing countries, such as Colombia, the Philippines, Pakistan and Iran, had citizenship rates of 74% to 82%.
The effect of human capital factors on active presence varied by citizenship status. Among naturalized immigrants, active presence typically exceeded 90% in the 10th year after immigration. It showed minimal variation across educational levels, official language profiles, age at immigration and immigration classes, with differences of 2 to 3 percentage points.
In contrast, among non-naturalized immigrants, the level of active presence was lower and varied considerably across immigrants’ human capital factors. Higher education levels were associated with lower active presence, with a 16 percentage point gap between those with a graduate degree and those with secondary education or less. Immigrants who spoke English or French had an active presence rate 9 to 16 percentage points lower than those who spoke neither language. Similarly, economic immigrants in various programs had lower active presence than refugees, with differences ranging from 9 to 19 percentage points.
Not only were immigrants from developed nations less likely to become citizens of Canada, but those who did were more likely to be inactive after 10 years, compared with their counterparts from developing countries (Table 2 and Chart 3).Note This likely relates to higher levels of return migration to developed nations, possible onward migration or even cyclical migration between the source and receiving countries.
Knowing how many inactive immigrants are citizens is useful because Canadian citizens living abroad may have advantages and expectations regarding security, assistance in times of need and other benefits not typically available to non-citizens. Overall, 10 years after admission, about 28% of inactive immigrants had Canadian citizenship. Large variations existed by immigration class and source country. About 49% of inactive refugees held Canadian citizenship, compared with 24% to 31% in other immigration classes. Although immigrants from developing nations were less likely to be inactive 10 years after admission, those who became inactive were much more likely to be citizens than immigrants from developed countries. About 50% of inactive immigrants from Iran were citizens, followed by 39% of inactive immigrants from Pakistan and 36% from Colombia. In contrast, 14% of inactive immigrants from the United States were Canadian citizens (Chart 3). These variations may suggest that immigrants from some developing countries are more likely to acquire Canadian citizenship before becoming inactive—maintaining the option of returning to Canada—compared with those from developed countries.
| Citizenship rate | Among citizens | Among non-citizens | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active presence | Inactive presence | Active presence | Inactive presence | ||
| percent | |||||
Source: Statistics Canada, Longitudinal Immigration Database. |
|||||
| Arrival cohort | |||||
| 2003 to 2007 | 68.1 Table 2 Note *** | 91.3 | 8.7 Table 2 Note † | 58.4 Table 2 Note † | 41.6 Table 2 Note † |
| 2008 to 2012 (reference) | 61.1 | 92.6 | 7.4 | 66.7 | 33.3 |
| Sex at birth | |||||
| Male (reference) | 61.2 | 90.9 | 9.1 | 61.4 | 38.6 |
| Female | 67.3 Table 2 Note *** | 92.9 | 7.1 Table 2 Note † | 64.9 Table 2 Note † | 35.1 Table 2 Note † |
| Age at admission | |||||
| 20 to 34 years | 66.7 Table 2 Note *** | 90.9 | 9.1 Table 2 Note † | 61.9 Table 2 Note † | 38.1 Table 2 Note † |
| 35 to 44 years | 61.3 | 93.6 | 6.4 Table 2 Note † | 66.3 Table 2 Note † | 33.7 Table 2 Note † |
| 45 to 54 years (reference) | 61.7 | 93.4 | 6.6 | 61.0 | 39.0 |
| Education at admission | |||||
| Secondary or less | 59.3 Table 2 Note *** | 92.1 | 7.9 Table 2 Note † | 69.3 Table 2 Note † | 30.7 Table 2 Note † |
| Some postsecondary | 63.0 Table 2 Note *** | 92.8 | 7.2 Table 2 Note † | 66.3 Table 2 Note † | 33.7 Table 2 Note † |
| Bachelor’s degree | 69.2 Table 2 Note *** | 91.8 | 8.2 Table 2 Note † | 58.6 | 41.4 Table 2 Note † |
| Graduate degree (reference) | 67.2 | 91.2 | 8.8 | 53.7 | 46.3 |
| Official language at admission | |||||
| English (reference) | 64.7 | 91.4 | 8.6 | 61.1 | 38.9 |
| French | 72.9 Table 2 Note *** | 94.4 | 5.6 Table 2 Note † | 60.9 Table 2 Note † | 39.1 Table 2 Note † |
| English and French | 71.9 Table 2 Note *** | 91.7 | 8.3 Table 2 Note † | 52.9 Table 2 Note † | 47.1 Table 2 Note † |
| Neither English nor French | 58.0 Table 2 Note *** | 93.4 | 6.6 Table 2 Note † | 70.5 Table 2 Note † | 29.5 Table 2 Note † |
| Immigration program | |||||
| Federal Skilled Worker Program (reference) | 68.1 | 92.6 | 7.4 | 54.4 | 45.6 |
| Provincial Nominee Program | 59.5 Table 2 Note *** | 92.2 | 7.8 Table 2 Note † | 64.1 Table 2 Note † | 35.9 Table 2 Note † |
| Quebec selection | 68.5 | 92.5 | 7.5 | 55.5 | 44.5 Table 2 Note † |
| Other economic programs | 59.6 Table 2 Note *** | 89.5 | 10.5 Table 2 Note † | 59.3 | 40.7 Table 2 Note † |
| Family class | 59.5 Table 2 Note *** | 91.1 | 8.9 Table 2 Note † | 71.4 Table 2 Note † | 28.6 Table 2 Note † |
| Refugees | 73.8 Table 2 Note *** | 90.9 | 9.1 | 73.5 Table 2 Note † | 26.5 Table 2 Note † |
| Top 10 source countries | |||||
| China | 48.6 Table 2 Note *** | 89.7 | 10.3 Table 2 Note † | 71.7 Table 2 Note † | 28.3 Table 2 Note † |
| India | 63.8 Table 2 Note *** | 94.6 | 5.4 Table 2 Note † | 65.0 Table 2 Note † | 35.0 Table 2 Note † |
| Philippines | 73.7 Table 2 Note *** | 96.7 | 3.3 Table 2 Note † | 75.7 Table 2 Note † | 24.3 Table 2 Note † |
| Pakistan | 80.0 Table 2 Note *** | 93.0 | 7.0 Table 2 Note † | 55.1 Table 2 Note † | 44.9 Table 2 Note † |
| United Kingdom | 52.3 Table 2 Note *** | 90.9 | 9.1 Table 2 Note † | 62.7 Table 2 Note † | 37.3 Table 2 Note † |
| Iran | 82.3 Table 2 Note *** | 88.9 | 11.1 Table 2 Note † | 49.2 Table 2 Note † | 50.8 Table 2 Note † |
| United States (reference) | 34.8 | 87.3 | 12.7 | 58.5 | 41.5 |
| South Korea | 53.6 Table 2 Note *** | 88.8 | 11.2 Table 2 Note † | 68.2 Table 2 Note † | 31.8 Table 2 Note † |
| France | 48.1 Table 2 Note *** | 86.6 | 13.4 | 55.8 Table 2 Note † | 44.2 Table 2 Note † |
| Colombia | 76.4 Table 2 Note *** | 90.7 | 9.3 Table 2 Note † | 47.2 Table 2 Note † | 52.8 Table 2 Note † |
| Other countries | 68.7 Table 2 Note *** | 91.3 | 8.7 Table 2 Note † | 58.7 Table 2 Note † | 41.3 Table 2 Note † |
| Active presence status within the first full year | |||||
| No taxes filed | 31.3 Table 2 Note *** | 65.9 | 34.1 Table 2 Note † | 22.8 Table 2 Note † | 77.2 Table 2 Note † |
| Filed a tax return with no earnings | 62.2 Table 2 Note *** | 93.0 | 7.0 Table 2 Note † | 68.7 Table 2 Note † | 31.3 Table 2 Note † |
| Earnings of more than $0 to $30,000 | 69.5 Table 2 Note *** | 93.7 | 6.3 Table 2 Note † | 78.2 Table 2 Note † | 21.8 Table 2 Note † |
| Earnings of more than $30,000 to $60,000 (reference) | 73.8 Table 2 Note *** | 94.3 | 5.7 | 83.8 | 16.2 |
| Earnings of more than $60,000 | 76.5 Table 2 Note *** | 91.7 | 8.3 Table 2 Note † | 80.4 Table 2 Note † | 19.6 Table 2 Note † |
Data table for Chart 3
| Citizenship rate | Inactive presence among citizens | Citizens among inactive immigrants | |
|---|---|---|---|
| percent | |||
| Source: Statistics Canada, Longitudinal Immigration Database. | |||
| China | 48.6 | 10.3 | 25.7 |
| India | 63.8 | 5.4 | 21.5 |
| Philippines | 73.7 | 3.3 | 27.8 |
| Pakistan | 80.0 | 7.0 | 38.5 |
| United Kingdom | 52.3 | 9.1 | 21.0 |
| Iran | 82.3 | 11.1 | 50.3 |
| United States | 34.8 | 12.7 | 14.0 |
| South Korea | 53.6 | 11.2 | 28.9 |
| France | 48.1 | 13.4 | 21.9 |
| Colombia | 76.4 | 9.3 | 36.3 |
5 Is citizenship acquisition associated with a decline in active presence in Canada?
This section examines whether immigrants who became Canadian citizens were less likely to have an active presence in Canada in the years immediately after becoming a citizen, compared with the years before. The analysis in this section focuses on immigrants aged 25 to 54 years at admission who were admitted from 2003 to 2012 and became Canadian citizens at least three years before 2023 (the latest year when citizenship data are available).Note The analysis longitudinally follows these immigrants and compares their activity status in the years before and after citizenship acquisition. Table 3 shows the annual percentage of immigrants who had an active presence in the three years before becoming a Canadian citizen, the year citizenship was acquired and the three years after becoming a citizen.
The results show a slight decline in active presence in Canada after acquiring citizenship, compared with before. From one year before to one year after, the activity rate fell from 97% to 95%, a decline of 2 percentage points over a two-year period. The activity rate fell to 92% three years after citizenship acquisition, a decline of 5 percentage points over a four-year period.Note This suggests that about 2% of naturalized immigrants stopped their active presence in Canada one year after becoming citizens and 5% did so three years after, either because they left the country or they stopped filing taxes. It is unlikely that immigrants living in Canada would stop filing taxes after acquiring citizenship; thus, becoming inactive most likely reflects their absence from the country. These decreases in active presence were smaller than the annual decline of about 3 percentage points among immigrants who did not acquire citizenship (Table 1).
The earlier discussion suggests that the tendency of immigrants to exit active presence in Canada following citizenship acquisition could vary significantly by source region. The data presented here support this supposition. For example, the active presence in Canada of naturalized immigrants from the United States fell by 3 percentage points from the year before to the year after they acquired citizenship, and by 10 percentage points when comparing the year before and three years after naturalization. Above-average declines in active presence in Canada following citizenship acquisition were also observed among immigrants from the United Kingdom (7 percentage points from the year before to three years after), France (9 percentage points) and South Korea (7 percentage points). At the lower end, immigrants from the Philippines, Pakistan and Colombia displayed below-average declines (3 to 4 percentage points) in active presence in Canada following citizenship acquisition.Note These data suggest that among immigrants from developed countries, 7% to 10% became inactive three years after acquiring citizenship, compared with 3% to 4% of immigrants from developing nations. Interestingly, China and Iran displayed patterns more closely resembling those of developed nations.
Human capital factors generally had little effect on active presence following naturalization. Changes in active presence after naturalization did not vary by educational level. Immigrants who spoke both English and French experienced a slightly larger decline in active presence (a 6 percentage point difference from the year before to three years after naturalization) compared with those with other language profiles (4 to 5 percentage points). Similarly, economic class immigrants showed a slightly larger decline in active presence (6 percentage points) than those in other classes (3 to 4 percentage points).
Immigrants who took longer to acquire citizenship were more likely to exit active presence. From the year before to three years after citizenship acquisition, the level of active presence fell by 10 percentage points for immigrants who acquired Canadian citizenship 8 to 9 years after immigration and by 15 percentage points for those who took 10 or more years to acquire citizenship, compared with a 4 percentage point decline for immigrants who took fewer years (Table 3).
| Years before (negative) and after (positive) acquiring Canadian citizenship | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -3 | -2 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
| percent | |||||||
| Note: The population count for this table is 1,070,270.
Source: Statistics Canada, Longitudinal Immigration Database. |
|||||||
| Total | 96.7 | 96.9 | 96.7 | 95.9 | 94.9 | 93.9 | 91.8 |
| Arrival cohort | |||||||
| 2003 to 2007 | 96.1 | 96.4 | 96.2 | 95.3 | 94.3 | 93.3 | 92.0 |
| 2008 to 2012 | 97.3 | 97.5 | 97.3 | 96.5 | 95.6 | 94.6 | 91.5 |
| Years to acquire citizenship | |||||||
| 5 years or less | 96.8 | 97.1 | 97.0 | 96.2 | 95.2 | 94.1 | 93.2 |
| 6 to 7 years | 96.6 | 96.8 | 96.5 | 95.7 | 94.7 | 93.7 | 92.9 |
| 8 to 9 years | 96.2 | 96.4 | 96.0 | 95.1 | 94.2 | 93.2 | 85.5 |
| 10 years or more | 95.9 | 96.3 | 95.7 | 94.8 | 93.9 | 93.1 | 80.7 |
| Education | |||||||
| Secondary or less | 95.5 | 96.0 | 95.7 | 95.0 | 94.2 | 93.5 | 91.1 |
| Some postsecondary | 96.7 | 96.9 | 96.8 | 96.1 | 95.4 | 94.6 | 92.7 |
| Bachelor’s degree | 97.1 | 97.3 | 97.1 | 96.3 | 95.3 | 94.2 | 92.3 |
| Graduate degree | 97.1 | 97.3 | 97.1 | 96.3 | 95.3 | 94.2 | 92.3 |
| Official language | |||||||
| English | 96.5 | 96.8 | 96.6 | 95.8 | 94.8 | 93.8 | 91.6 |
| French | 97.6 | 97.8 | 97.7 | 97.0 | 96.3 | 95.8 | 94.1 |
| English and French | 97.1 | 97.3 | 97.0 | 95.9 | 94.4 | 92.9 | 90.9 |
| Neither English nor French | 96.4 | 96.6 | 96.5 | 95.9 | 95.1 | 94.4 | 92.5 |
| Immigration class | |||||||
| Economic class | 97.7 | 97.9 | 97.6 | 96.8 | 95.6 | 94.4 | 92.1 |
| Family class | 94.7 | 95.1 | 94.9 | 94.3 | 93.7 | 92.9 | 90.9 |
| Refugees | 95.6 | 96.0 | 95.8 | 94.8 | 94.1 | 93.5 | 92.1 |
| Others | 95.1 | 95.6 | 95.0 | 94.5 | 93.9 | 93.7 | 92.1 |
| Source region | |||||||
| United States | 95.2 | 95.4 | 95.0 | 93.9 | 91.9 | 89.9 | 85.2 |
| Caribbean, and Central and South America | 96.7 | 97.0 | 96.7 | 95.9 | 95.0 | 93.9 | 92.0 |
| Western and Northern Europe | 97.2 | 97.5 | 96.9 | 95.9 | 94.2 | 92.3 | 88.8 |
| Southern and Eastern Europe | 97.2 | 97.5 | 97.4 | 96.7 | 95.9 | 95.0 | 93.5 |
| Africa | 96.1 | 96.5 | 96.2 | 95.2 | 94.4 | 93.6 | 91.9 |
| Southern Asia | 96.9 | 97.1 | 97.0 | 96.4 | 95.8 | 95.1 | 92.9 |
| Southeast Asia | 97.8 | 97.9 | 97.9 | 97.6 | 97.2 | 96.9 | 94.9 |
| East Asia | 96.1 | 96.3 | 96.1 | 94.9 | 93.6 | 92.2 | 90.1 |
| West Asia | 96.0 | 96.4 | 96.0 | 94.6 | 93.0 | 91.3 | 88.9 |
| Top 10 source countries | |||||||
| China | 96.0 | 96.2 | 96.0 | 94.9 | 93.6 | 92.3 | 90.4 |
| India | 97.1 | 97.3 | 97.2 | 96.7 | 96.1 | 95.4 | 93.0 |
| Philippines | 98.9 | 99.0 | 98.9 | 98.7 | 98.4 | 98.1 | 96.1 |
| Pakistan | 96.3 | 96.7 | 96.6 | 95.7 | 94.9 | 94.1 | 92.4 |
| United Kingdom | 96.8 | 97.1 | 96.8 | 95.8 | 94.5 | 92.8 | 89.8 |
| Iran | 95.2 | 95.6 | 95.1 | 93.6 | 92.2 | 90.9 | 88.8 |
| United States | 95.2 | 95.4 | 95.0 | 93.9 | 91.9 | 89.9 | 85.2 |
| South Korea | 96.9 | 97.1 | 96.8 | 95.6 | 94.2 | 92.6 | 89.8 |
| France | 97.8 | 98.0 | 97.3 | 96.2 | 94.1 | 91.9 | 88.3 |
| Colombia | 97.9 | 97.9 | 97.5 | 96.8 | 95.6 | 94.5 | 93.1 |
Conclusion
This study examines whether there is a relationship between acquiring citizenship and the level of “inactivity” in Canada. An immigrant is inactive if they left Canada or are living in the country but not filing income taxes. The vast majority of immigrants to Canada file taxes (90% did so in their first year). Some immigrants who become citizens—about 8%—became inactive by the 10th year after admission. Variation by immigrant source country was significant. Immigrants from developed nations were less likely to become Canadian citizens, and those who did had a higher rate of inactivity in the country 10 years after admission, compared with their counterparts from developing nations (controlling for other characteristics). The proportion of immigrants who were active after 10 years was much higher among citizens than among non-citizens. Furthermore, active presence has increased among more recent immigrant cohorts, regardless of citizenship status.
To examine the connection between citizenship acquisition and active presence in Canada, the analysis looks at whether immigrant citizens were less likely to have an active presence in the years immediately following citizenship acquisition than in the years immediately before. The results reveal that the active presence rate dropped from 97% one year before naturalization to 95% one year after, a decrease of 2 percentage points. This suggests that about 2% of naturalized immigrants ceased their active presence in Canada over this two-year period. However, this decline in active presence was smaller than the annual decrease of approximately 3 percentage points among immigrants who did not acquire citizenship.
Overall, the results indicate that a very small proportion of immigrants shifted from having an active to an inactive presence in Canada after acquiring citizenship. For the majority of immigrants, naturalization had little effect on their active presence status. The finding suggests that immigrants who choose to become Canadian citizens are highly committed to staying in Canada.
References
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