Variable Descriptions

Family functioning scale items

The scale includes the following 12 questions, each of which contains four response categories (i.e., 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=agree, 4=strongly agree). The total score for the additive scale ranges from 0 to 36, a high score indicating the higher levels of dysfunction. Values were recoded in order to have a value of 0 for the lowest score, that is, individual items were recoded from 0 to 3 (rather than the original range of 1 to 4), and reversed where necessary so that higher scores indicated dysfunction. This strategy also applies to the other scales included in the analyses.

• Planning family activities is difficult because we misunderstand each other.
• In times of crisis we can turn to each other for support.
• We cannot talk to each other about sadness we feel.
• Individuals (in the family) are accepted for what they are.
• We avoid discussing our fears or concerns.
• We express feelings to each other.
• There are lots of bad feelings in our family.
• We feel accepted for what we are.
• Making decisions is a problem for our family.
• We are able to make decisions about how to solve problems.
• We don't get along well together.
• We confide in each other.

Ineffective parenting scale items

The scale includes the following seven questions, each of which contains five response categories. The first item has the response categories: never, about once a week or less, a few times a week, once or two times a day, many times each day. The response categories for the other six items are: never, less than half the time, about half the time, more than half the time, all the time. The total score ranges from 0 to 28, a high score indicating the presence of hostile and ineffective interactions.

• How often do you get annoyed with ... for saying or doing something he and she is not supposed to do?
• Of all the times that you talk to ... about his or her behaviour, what proportion is praise?
• Of all the times that you talk to ... about his or her behaviour, what proportion is disapproval?
• How often do you get angry when you punish ...?
• How often do you think that the kind of punishment you give him and her depends on your mood?
• How often do you feel you are having problems managing him and her in general?
• How often do you have to discipline him and her repeatedly for the same thing?

Low to middle income adequacy consists of the following categories

• Household income is less than 40,000 and household size is up to 4 persons; or
• Household income is less than 60,000 and household size is 5 or more persons.
• Respondents who do not fall into these categories were coded as high income adequacy.

Altruism or prosocial behaviour scale items

The scale includes the following ten questions, each of which contains three response categories (i.e., never or not true, sometimes or somewhat true, often or very true). The total score ranges from 0 to 20, a high score indicating the presence of prosocial behaviour.

• Shows sympathy to someone who has made a mistake.
• Will try to help someone who has been hurt.
• Volunteers to help clear up a mess someone else has made.
• If there is a quarrel or dispute will try to stop it.
• Offers to help other children (friend, brother, or sister) who are having difficulty with a task.
• Comforts a child (friend, brother, or sister) who is crying or upset.
• Spontaneously helps to pick up objects which another child has dropped (e.g. pencils, books).
• Will invite bystanders to join in a game.
• Helps other children (friend, brother, or sister) who are feeling sick.
• Helps those who do not do as well as he does.

Anxiety or emotional disorder scale items

The scale includes the following seven questions, each of which contains three response categories (i.e., never or not true, sometimes or somewhat true, often or very true). The total score varies from 0 to 14, a high score indicating the presence of behaviours associated with anxiety and emotional disorder.

• Seems to be unhappy, sad or depressed.
• Is not as happy as other children.
• Is too fearful or anxious.
• Is worried.
• Cries a lot.
• Is nervous, high-strung, or tense.
• Has trouble enjoying self.

Physical aggression or conduct disorder scale items

The scale includes the following six questions, each of which contains three response categories (i.e., never or not true, sometimes or somewhat true, often or very true).

The total score ranges from 0 to 12, a high score indicating behaviour associated with conduct disorders and physical aggression.

• Gets into many fights.
• When somebody accidentally hurts..., ...reacts with anger and fighting.
• Physically attacks people.
• Threatens people.
• Is cruel, bullies or is mean to others.
• Kicks, bites, hits other children.